French Classroom Research Articles

Antecedents of Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE) in the French Classroom

Antecedents of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) are important for practitioners and researchers to understand as FLE has been linked to important concepts like motivation and language achievement. The literature on antecedents is, however, rather scarce and overly dependent on top-down qualitative coding to fully understand this phenomenon. This report seeks to add to the knowledge of sources of FLE by investigating the antecedents of FLE in U.S. learners of French. The present study uses data collected from an open-ended survey and analyzed via an interpretive approach. The survey was sent out to students enrolled in undergraduate French courses at a large Southeastern university and a total of 50 participants responded to the questionnaire out of 183 directly solicited, for a response rate of 27%. The results revealed that content, teacher personality, and a sense of community were sources of FLE, with the sense of community taking the lion’s share of responses. This report argues that this sense of community, which was previously unattested in the literature, can be explained adequately within the second language and positive psychology (L2EPP) theory of emotions. Theoretical implications and future directions are discussed.

Comparing Intercultural Competence in Lower Secondary English and French Classrooms in Norway: An Overview Study

The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze evidence of intercultural competence across 22 lower secondary English-as-a-second-language and French-as-a-foreign-language classrooms in Norway based on video observations of naturally occurring instruction. We recorded minimum four consecutive lessons in each classroom across two school years, totaling 90 lessons. Research on intercultural competence in second and foreign language classrooms has involved analyses of curricula, textbooks, literary texts in class, and intervention studies, but few scholars have observed naturally occurring instruction. Even fewer studies have used video observations to compare language subjects. This study aims to fill this gap by providing an overview of how intercultural competence is addressed in English and French instruction and identifying similarities and differences between the two subjects. Using the model elaborated in the Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (RFCDC) as an analytical lens, we found that the model’s area knowledge and critical understanding was most prominent in both subjects and that cultural stereotypes both occurred and were challenged by students across subjects. However, we found more, and more varied, evidence of intercultural competence in the English classrooms, where topics were studied in-depth, whereas the French classes often studied an array of topics more superficially.

Code-Switching in French and Francophone Studies Classrooms in a Ghanaian Public University: Exploring Perceptions and Motivations

Code-switching in language classrooms is a contentious topic of debate, with some experts advocating for the monolingual use of the target language as the medium of instruction, while others support a bilingual approach such as code-switching and translanguaging. This paper examines the motivations for code-switching and the perceptions of both lecturers and students on bilingual practices in French and Francophone Studies classrooms. The study adopted a mixed research design, gathering data through interviews, classroom observation and an online questionnaire using a Google Form interface. The questionnaires were distributed to students via their WhatsApp platforms. A total of 120 French students filled out the questionnaires and 5 lecturers were selected for the interview session. The findings revealed that lecturers employ code-switching to address the linguistic needs of both Anglophone and Francophone students in the classrooms. The reasons for code-switching included students’ limited language background, low proficiency in the French language, inadequate teaching materials, situational factors, and the relevance of other languages in French classrooms. Overall, the majority of the lecturers and students expressed a positive perspective towards code-switching use in the classroom stating that such code choices facilitate the understanding of concepts and contribute to interactive classroom experiences. There was, however, the caution against its pervasive use as it hinders the ability to learn and speak the French language.

A multimodal perspective on adult learners’ vocabulary explanations in the beginner-level L2 classroom

ABSTRACT Following the current research in conversation analysis in the field of second language (L2) learning, the present study demonstrates that beginner-level adult learners actively contribute to vocabulary explanation sequences by mobilising multimodal resources including depictive gestures, gaze, and short verbal turns. The data consist of video-recordings of whole-class interactions in a beginner-level L2 French classroom for adults with migrant backgrounds. The analysis shows how the depictive gestures deployed by learners serve either to represent concrete words, directly depicting the target item, or, combined with a short verbal explanation, to make more abstract concepts visible by contextualising the target word and associating it with a larger context of use. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the functioning of vocabulary explanations in the L2 classroom and, in particular, of the specific participatory dynamics in language classes for beginner-level adult learners.

The emotional labor of physical education teachers in ‘difficult contexts’: an inductive analysis of the most significant moments of their career

ABSTRACT Introduction Originally, the concept of emotional labor comes from the sociological work of Hochschild (1983. The Managed Heart: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: The University of California Press). In recent decades, it has also been defined in approaches of a more psychological nature within a variety of professional contexts. However, the emotional labor of teachers has been the subject of only a limited number of studies, especially in Physical Education (PE). It is essential to better understand the forms and inducers of teachers' emotional labor in this context. PE in ‘difficult' teaching contexts particularly can test teachers' emotions. This article aims to analyze the forms and inducers of PE teachers' emotional labor in ‘difficult’ contexts, during the most significant moments of their career, according to an inductive situated psychological approach. Method 61 PE teachers working in ‘difficult’ French classrooms agreed to participate in this research. Using the critical incident method, we asked these teachers to tell us about the most significant moments of their career in this context. The 203 critical incidents collected were inductively analyzed, according to a ‘grounded theory’ approach, in five stages. Processing data in this way allowed us to identify the forms and inducers of the teachers’ emotional labor in each critical incident collected. Results Four forms of emotional labor were identified through the analysis. Two of them refer to an active position (n = 116; 57.1%): ‘To master the negative emotions generated by an unpleasant situation’ and ‘To master the positive emotions generated by a pleasant situation’. The remaining two categories relate to a passive position (n = 87; 42.9%): ‘To feel and express the positive emotions generated by a pleasant situation’ and ‘To feel and express the positive emotions emerging from an unpleasant situation’. The inducers of the teachers’ emotional labor were mostly negative (n = 106; 44.9%) and can be divided into six categories (including that of ‘Student violence against the teacher’). Conversely, three categories of positive inducers were also identified (n = 130; 55.1%), especially that of the ‘Quality of human relations within the school’. The relationship between the forms and inducers of the teachers’ emotional labor revealed that the active forms emerged from negative inducers and that the passive forms were related to positive inducers. Discussion and conclusions The emotional labor of PE teachers in ‘difficult’ contexts mainly consists in mastering negative emotions in situations that are sometimes very risky. These situations are mostly linked to student violence, social difficulties, and disruption. However, our results also highlight the fact that PE teaching in ‘difficult’ contexts should not be viewed solely as negative. Teachers also experience significant positive emotions, which refer to the passive forms of emotional labor. These positive emotions are moreover intense since the teachers have previously experienced difficulties in this context. They are mainly linked to the quality of human relations within these schools.

A comparative study of the haptic technique: French language learning through movies for higher secondary education

Progress in education is now beyond traditional and orthodox teaching approaches. Utilization of technology in teaching seems to be a pipe dream. Each day passes with modern interpretations and innovations. Teaching resources and technological advancement result in the desired outputs. When textbooks fail to lure learners’ attention, integrating learning with enjoyable sources appears to be an appropriate method to achieve the most. This strategy has its pros and cons. Teaching through movies might be difficult but when done well, it has multiple benefits. Unlike books, movies allow learners to acquire knowledge visually. The movie Gandhi, for instance, permits learners to experience a replica of Mahatma Gandhi’s biography. Visual samples provide a greater understanding of the period and era besides the culture of the historic figure. Furthermore, unlike books, movies are not restrained in any way. As a result, this study investigates the analytical perception of the pedagogical use of movies in French lectures as the practice is not as advantageous to French students as it appears. Following the implementation of a movie module in two French classrooms, a questionnaire was administered to 35 participants of first and second year higher secondary education to obtain feedback for analyzing the effectiveness of language acquisition. According to the data, French learners have extremely positive attitudes towards the movie-based method and consider it engaging and beneficial for enhancing linguistic and social skills.

Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom by E. Nicole Meyer, and Eilene Hoft-March

Reviewed by: Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom by E. Nicole Meyer, and Eilene Hoft-March Jessica L. Sturm Meyer, E. Nicole, and Eilene Hoft-March. Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom. Routledge, 2022. Pp. 199. ISBN: 978-0-367-64827-5. Diversity and inclusion are essential to education, particularly language and culture, both as policy and as course content. I am not certain it is possible to cover all aspects of diversity and inclusion in one text, but I believe the editors and the authors of the included chapters have done a remarkable job in the attempt (and I cannot imagine what they might have omitted). The 17 chapters of the three sections of Teaching Diversity and Inclusion work to de-center the traditional White, male, cis-gender, heterosexual, neurotypical, physically able experience that has dominated society (and education) for so long. Section I, "Unscripting and Claiming Identities," focuses on creating a classroom atmosphere where students can learn safely regardless of their personal characteristics. As Kris Aric Knisely writes in chapter 2, "we cannot separate language from the people using, doing, and continually (re)shaping the language" (22). The four chapters of Section I provide guidance for the language teacher to consider queerness, gender identity, differences of physical ability, and race in the classroom. Section II, "Inclusively Speaking," gives concrete suggestions for building course curricula that are inclusive of sex, gender identity, learning differences, la Francophonie, and French language culture beyond France. For example, in chapter 8, Jessica S. Miller describes the process of re-designing the beginning and intermediate French language sequence at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire to "transform the way […] students view the French-speaking world from a singular entity to a complex amalgam" (88). In Section III, "Embracing Cultures/Extending Contexts," the spotlight shifts from the language classroom to literature and culture courses. These seven chapters document courses on topics such as the Francospheres of Latin America, global foodways, hip-hop culture, and post-Holocaust writing. Each chapter of this important text provides teachers with tools for creating an inclusive classroom as well as plenty of food for thought on the vast dimensions of diversity and inclusions that are so crucial to a 21st century education. Teaching Diversity and Inclusion is an important reference that should be on every teacher's shelf (French or other languages) and should serve as a reference point for those developing new language textbooks and curricula. The text could be an excellent supplementary material for methodology classes but is equally useful for the veteran instructor at any level. As the world changes and we become more aware of previously-ignored needs for inclusivity, the authors and editors of this text have provided us a clear roadmap into the future of French (or any language) classrooms. [End Page 260] Jessica L. Sturm Purdue University (IN) Copyright © 2023 American Association of Teachers of French

Multimodal Differentiation for Allophone Pupils in First Language French Classroom

Language classroom interactions can be characterized as multimodal, since teachers may resort to a variety of resources provided by their body or by their immediate space in order to convey meaning, manage activities and assess pupils’ performances. Furthermore, teachers’ multimodal practices constitute an essential component for the differentiating process aiming to resolve especially linguistic problems some pupils may face. In this perspective, this study examines the implementation of multimodal differentiation by the same teacher in the case of allophone pupils following first language French courses alongside with native pupils of 3rd grade within the context of inclusion classroom in a middle school in France. More specifically, it was aimed to analyze a teacher’s adaptation of kinesic and proxemic behaviors within the differentiation process, such as the use of hand gestures, gaze and facial expressions as bodily resources but also the control of interpersonal distance with respect to allophone pupils. For this purpose, a micro-ethnographic research strategy was applied, and data was collected through video-recorded sessions of the teacher in inclusion classroom. Our qualitative analysis of the data revealed a differentiated use of prosodic, kinesic and proxemic elements by the teacher, such as the reduction of speech rate, the accentuation of words, the production of deictic and iconic hand gestures as well as facial expressions, the orientation of gaze, the forward leaning posture, the isolated seating arrangement, and the reduction of interpersonal distance. All these elements either follow or overlap each other, especially within the framework of teacher instructions during classroom activities.

Approaching French cultures in the FSL classroom: The salade niçoise recipe

The most meaningful and profound elements of cultures are often hidden below the surface. This exploratory case study investigates how a sample of Ontario non-native French-speaking educators approached Frenchspeaking cultures in the Grade 9 Core French classroom. Confident participants were often frequent travellers to francophone communities, regularly studied French to improve their linguistic and cultural proficiencies, and redesigned cultural activities with current material. The educators also experienced difficulties including lack of information and communications technology, teacher-training and experiential learning for students. The findings raise several possibilities for profound cultural exploration, such as (a) perceiving culture through a pluricultural perspective, (b) refining teacher-training initiatives, (c) following the neurolinguistic approach for oral fluency, and (d) prioritizing travel-based activities so that students can better explore francophone communities and their cultures.

The sociocognitive functions of English use during L2 French collaborative writing tasks

Reflecting the important role of collaborative dialogue in second language (L2) learning, collaborative writing tasks have been widely used in L2 classrooms to help students gain new knowledge and consolidate their existing knowledge about how the target language works. Although use of the first language (L1) during peer interaction has been criticized (Levine, 2003; Unamuno, 2008), collaborative dialogue research has identified how L1 English use serves several important sociocognitive functions and supports knowledge mediation in foreign language classrooms (Swain & Lapkin, 2013). This study also examines the sociocognitive functions served by English in an L2 French classroom but compares the functions used by L1 English ( n = 13) and L2 English ( n = 7) speakers during collaborative writing tasks. Their discussions during two collaborative writing tasks were transcribed, and their English use was analysed in terms of its sociocognitive function. Results showed that L1 and L2 English speakers used English for similar sociocognitive functions, mainly for generating ideas, managing the task, and discussing vocabulary. However, there were some different patterns in terms of how extensively English was used within a turn across the functions. Implications are discussed in terms of the potential benefits of using linguistic resources other than the target language in multilingual L2 classrooms.

Didactic Games in the French Language Classroom

The growing interest in studying foreign languages in Latvia, including the study of French as a foreign language, is a feature of our time. This indisputable position determines the relevance of the article. All students choosing French for study have very different motivation. At the same time, everyone is aware that a good knowledge of foreign languages is an indispensable precondition for career growth and the key that opens the door for us to enter another culture. French language learning is a hard task which can sometimes be frustrating. Constant effort is required to understand, produce and manipulate the target language. Well-chosen games are invaluable as they give students a break and at the same time allow students to practice language skills. The author of the article shares the opinion that games are highly motivating since they are amusing and at the same time challenging. Furthermore, they employ meaningful and useful language in real contexts. Games also encourage and increase cooperation. They can be used to give practice in all language skills and be used to practice many types of communication. The curriculum for foreign languages emphasizes the importance of learning languages and especially the importance of communication. Because of this fact it is vitally important for teachers to create a positive learning environment, and to try to spark interest among their students both in the foreign language and culture because that is important to a successful language learning process. Games help achieve these goals. The article considers the types of games (research games, certification games and didactic games) and their influence on psycho-physiological state of students. Brief methodical recommendations on the organization of didactic playing activities are also provided. The author describes game-based learning and its impact on intrinsic motivation and performance of students, in particular their speaking skills. The theoretical part includes definitions of main concepts such as intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and creativity. The practical part is dedicated to certain games and tasks to enhance motivation and speaking skills. In conclusion, the role of games in teaching and learning cannot be denied. However, in order to achieve the most from didactic games in the French classroom, it is essential that suitable games are chosen. Whenever a game is to be conducted, the number of students, proficiency level, cultural context, timing, learning topic, and the classroom settings are factors that should be taken into account.

Fairy Tale as a Linguodidactic Resource Teaching French

The relevance of the study lies in the fact that French is one of the demanded foreign languages studied in Latvia and is an important academic subject. It contributes to the improvement of communication culture and pushes the boundaries of students' cognitive capabilities. The linguodidactic versatility of a fairy tale is an urgent problem, both in theoretical and practical terms. The purpose of this research is to consider the tale, both in ontogeny and in a purely practical perspective. In the French classroom, we use fairy tales to achieve practical, educational, and developmental goals. Along with the linguistic aspect itself, a fairy tale can be effectively used for the formation and development of main types of speech activity: reading, listening, speaking, and writing. Practical goals are achieved because the use of material from fairy tales in game situations contributes to the development of communication skills. This creates conditions for speech activity, close to natural communication in a foreign language. In addition to the fact that the environment of real communication is simulated in the lesson, students transform themselves into fairy-tale characters. This approach keeps them interested in the learning process and creates a favorable psychological climate. The use of fairy tales is such an activity in the lesson that is of great importance for the formation of personality, provides the emotional, intellectual, and moral development of the student. A fairy tale as a rich linguistic and cultural resource helps the student to develop his/her attention, memory and thinking. Many years of personal experience allows me to assert that learning languages through fairy tales enables a teacher to: rely on a quality resource; deliver quality classes that teach students a second language; bring positive language learning into a classroom; engage learners both cognitively and emotionally; help students to gain a deep and satisfying understanding of language; find personal enjoyment in a resource; provide a different approach to learning language; give students ownership of their learning of a new language and equip them with language tools for their future.

Our Civilizing Mission: The Lessons of Colonial Education

Our Civilizing Mission: The Lessons of Colonial Education

The Rise in Demand for Special Education in Ontario, Canada: A Focus on French-Language Schools

Over the past several decades, teachers have been increasingly challenged with a greater diversity of learning profiles within their classrooms. Historically, within Ontario, Canada, students who did not learn effectively through traditional methods were labelled and separated into alternate learning environments. Legislation and policy transformation have resulted in greater inclusion and stigma reduction. Changes to formal and informal identification processes have also increased the number of students accessing special education services. This conceptual paper examines the challenges arising from students’ changing learning needs, with a specific focus on the French classroom. Issues related to the Individual Education Plan, the formal identification processes, and the inconsistency inherent to special education terminology and teachers’ preparation concerning differentiated learning and resources in special education are explored. Further, employing Katz and colleagues’ (Hymel & Katz, 2019; Katz, 2013; Katz & Sokal, 2016) three-block model of universal design for an inclusive classroom as a framework, a case study from a French-language secondary school in Ontario, Canada, is examined to determine systemic gaps that need to be addressed to achieve the goal of fully inclusive classrooms that promote successful learning experiences for all students.

Public and private memory: teaching the Holocaust in French classrooms

ABSTRACT History teachers are unique in their practice of memory, for they have opted, whether consciously or unconsciously, for a profession which advances a collective understanding of the past. This article explores teachers’ intergenerational memories of the Holocaust and the Second World War in France, analysing how these influenced the way in which teachers approached these histories in their classrooms. Through ‘life history’ interviews conducted with teachers in France in 2018, it asks whether teachers found personal or family histories to be “useful” in the classroom, or whether they remained silent or hidden.

Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom ed. by E. Nicole Meyer and Eilene Hoft-March

Reviewed by: Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom ed. by E. Nicole Meyer and Eilene Hoft-March Mary Anne Garnett Meyer, E. Nicole, and Eilene Hoft-March, eds. Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom. Routledge, 2021. Pp 216. ISBN 978-0367648329. $160.00 (cloth). ISBN 978-0367648275. $38.95 (paper). ISBN 978-1003126461. $35.05 (eBook) The tone set by the editors in their introduction to this volume is urgent, even militant, in expressing the need for teachers to implement practices that promote diversity and inclusion in their classrooms. Acutely aware of the challenges facing our society and our profession in these turbulent and divisive times, they have [End Page 200] selected what in itself is a diverse and inclusive selection of seventeen essays to help teachers like themselves better understand the issues and to provide them with practical tools to implement changes. The authors of these essays represent a variety of institutions of higher learning. Writing from their own classroom experience, they have developed their own materials or supplemented existing ones to better meet the needs of their students in terms of gender, race, ethnicity and disabilities. This is indeed one of the major strengths of the volume. Each chapter begins by posing the theoretical basis for the practices described and recommended therein. This leads to some redundancy but also makes each chapter self-contained for readers who wish to pick and choose the areas that interest them. Each chapter also concludes with a bibliography, virtually an état présent, in addition to E. Nicole Meyer's comprehensive bibliography that closes the volume. The essays are organized into three sections, although the boundaries among them are fluid and some essays could easily have been included in a different section. The first section contains four chapters, each dealing with a traditionally marginalized group. CJ Gomolka makes the case for a queer pedagogy that also intersects with "anti-racist, anti-sexist, anti-imperialist, antiableist, and decolonial pedagogies" (12) while Kris Aric Knisely focuses on TGNC (transgender and gender nonconforming) students in the context of TAQIBP (trans-affirming, queer inquiry-based pedagogies). In a deeply personal essay, Tammy Berberi, a disabled teacher herself, shares strategies she has implemented that foster pride and self-acceptance among all her students, disabled or not. The Black Lives Matter movement and backlash to the teaching of Critical Race Theory make Kate Nelson's contribution, "Improving Racial Inclusivity in the French Classroom," more relevant than ever. The second section, "Inclusively Speaking," is comprised of seven chapters, two of which (essays by Kiki Kosnick and Dominique Carlini Versini) examine the challenges of teaching langage inclusif. Kathryn A. Dettmer and Brenda A. Dyer discuss means of helping students with language-oriented learning disabilities, including dyslexia and audio-processing disorders, using principles of Universal Design of Learning. Jessica S. Miller details how she redesigned the French curriculum at her small state university using backward design and student learning outcomes (SLO) to promote equality, diversity, and inclusion (EDI). Similarly, Stephanie Schechner describes efforts at her private liberal arts college "to develop a curriculum that serves the entire-French-speaking world" to better serve "the needs of heritage, native, and second-language speakers" (97). Eilene Hoft-March focuses on promoting civil discourse in her speaking-intensive course, "La chose franco-arabe," while Dominique Licops has designed an introductory literature course with a diverse corpus based on Intercultural Teaching Competence (ITC) principles. The third section, "Embracing Cultures/Extending Contexts," contains a heterogeneous selection of six essays, each of which describes a specific course developed by its author. Lowry Martin has developed a core curriculum course and adapted it as an upper-level French course based on the concept of "Francospheres" as applied to the Americas. Global foodways and hip-hop cultures form the basis of courses created by Lauren Ravalico and Kathryn St. [End Page 201] Ours, respectively. Lovia Mondésir utilizes novels by Haitian authors Jacques S. Alexis and Louis-Philippe Dalembert to teach tolerance in her classroom. Whereas Jews as a minority group are often neglected in discussions of inclusivity, the final two essays seek to remedy this. Nancy M. Arenberg has created...

Reexamining Our Approach to Conjunctions and Adverbs in the Beginning French Classroom

While the importance of vocabulary for developing speaking, reading, writing, and listening skills is well known, our choice of which vocabulary to teach (and when) follows few pedagogically sound principles. This article compares the most frequent conjunctions and adverbs in French with those featured on vocabulary lists in six popular beginning-level college textbooks in the United States. It demonstrates that textbooks neglect to provide explicit coverage and practice of these crucial building blocks for organized speech and writing, and provides suggestions for ways to include them much earlier, paving the way for greater use as proficiency increases.

Advancing Online Teaching: Creating Equity-Based Digital Learning Environments by Kevin Kelly and Todd Zakrajsek

Reviewed by: Advancing Online Teaching: Creating Equity-Based Digital Learning Environments by Kevin Kelly and Todd Zakrajsek E. Nicole Meyer Kelly, Kevin, and Todd Zakrajsek. Advancing Online Teaching: Creating Equity-Based Digital Learning Environments. Stylus, 2021. ISBN 978-1-62036-722-3. Pp. xv + 248. While the move to online teaching caused by the Covid-19 pandemic was sudden (March 2020), the push to online teaching will continue to increase. For many French instructors, the notions of diversity, equity, and inclusion are on our minds due to the global reach of French, and our continuing efforts to include other French-speaking cultures into our teaching. This volume successfully incorporates inclusion, learning equity, and universal design for learning (UDL) into course design, writing course outcomes, course structure(s), activities and assessment. Thus, Kelly and Zakrajsek’s work helps French teachers to create an “instructor presence,” address different modes of learning, augment multiple paths for student success, and create the human connection our students crave. Many will appreciate the evidence-based ways to make adjustments to online courses, concrete teaching tips, and the differentiation between assessing teaching and student learning. The authors convincingly argue that to “advance online learning,” we must “teach in an increasingly inclusive, equitable, and compassionate way” (3). Divided into three parts, the first section concisely defines underlying concepts such as UDL, fostering human connectedness, and equity. It also addresses (re)writing SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-Related) learning outcomes for equitable, inclusive online courses, and suggests concrete ways to establish a transparent organizational framework. To optimize engagement with course content, emerging technologies prove crucial to many. Best practices include aligning activities and assessment strategies with desired outcomes. The second section of the volume provides useful ways of promoting respectful, engaging discussions and other meaningful, often interactive, online activities. French teachers all invest immense time building authentic and engaging learning situations. Learning to manage student and instructor expectations through workload management strategies while assuring truly diverse, equitable and inclusive learning environments is essential to our well-being. The final part of the volume aids us to make effective adjustments to our online courses. A growth-minded approach to teaching online underlies the authors’ suggestions. Useful recommendations for authentic assessment of both our courses and of student learning translate well to our discipline. The complete bibliography, lists of URLs and applicable technologies are helpful. The strengths of this work are multiple: its usefulness for experienced and novice online instructors, its solid theoretical grounding, as well as a truly inclusive approach that includes Quality Matters (QM) considerations and goes beyond. Together, these features can remind instructors of essential factors for all students, including the building of a respectful equity-minded learning community. Suggestions of engaging, inclusive thinking, and diverse discussion and other activities prove applicable for language and more advanced French students. For teachers seeking primarily French-speaking examples or French-focused tools to create safe classroom environments [End Page 211] welcoming LGBTQIA+ students, this volume will prove less useful. Rethinking the French Classroom: New Approaches to Teaching Contemporary French and Francophone Women (Routledge 2019) and Teaching Diversity and Inclusion: Examples from a French-Speaking Classroom. (Routledge 2021) better serve that purpose. While not targeting those specific lenses, this current volume should prove useful to French teachers as they design and enact their online courses. [End Page 212] E. Nicole Meyer Augusta University (GA) Copyright © 2022 American Association of Teachers of French

Primary school expectations: the invisible curriculum as a tool for understanding learning inequalities

This paper reports the results of a study aimed at understanding the processes governing the construction of educational inequalities in French classrooms, the French school system being particularly unequal. Traditional explanations have focused on the factors governing the production of inequalities but have not always shown how these factors translate into learning inequalities in class. Consistent with relational approaches, the study draws on ethnographic research conducted over an 18-month period in 6 socially contrasting Parisian schools. Both students from wealthy families considered to be ‘high-achieving’ and students from poor families viewed as being ‘low-achieving’ were observed over the course of full school days to understand the factors that lead them to develop different activities. The evidence suggests that children interpret teacher expectations very differently, although the same expectations were observed in all the classes observed during the study. These expectations point to an invisible curriculum operating alongside the formal curriculum and generally perceived only by high-achieving students, who are able to grasp and understand it through their prior socialization. A further characteristic of the invisible curriculum is that it is rarely made explicit by teachers. This finding highlights the need to further examine explicitation strategies in schools.

Rethinking the French Classroom: New Approaches to Teaching Contemporary French and Francophone Women ed. by E. Nicole Meyer and Joyce Johnston (review)

Reviewed by: Rethinking the French Classroom: New Approaches to Teaching Contemporary French and Francophone Women ed. by E. Nicole Meyer and Joyce Johnston Noëlle Brown E. Nicole Meyer and Joyce Johnston, eds. Rethinking the French Classroom: New Approaches to Teaching Contemporary French and Francophone Women. Routledge, 2019. 165p. The title, Rethinking the French Classroom: New Approaches to Teaching Contemporary French and Francophone Women, attracts readers, who, like so many of “today’s French instructors must be prepared to teach outside of the French classroom. We are challenged to reinvent how we teach along with what we teach” (1). The volume, expertly edited by E. Nicole Meyer and Joyce Johnston, responds to this need in four parts, each with four or five articles. Their Introduction details the overall structure and the importance of each article, addressing immediately the reader’s first questions of Why? and How?. Instead of dwelling on the negative circumstances that render French “an embattled language in the States, despite its cultural, literary, and linguistic prominence across the world” (1), the editors provide much-needed solutions, and “concrete strategies for teaching difference and diversity at all levels of the French classroom, as well as tools to promote their programs on campus” (1). Part 1, “Exploring Identities/Exploring the Self: French Literature and Women’s Studies in the Twenty-First Century,” brings together four articles. Eilene Hoft-March justifies studying languages and literature: “being able to make sense of human beings is an [End Page 123] invaluable (read also: commodifiable) ability” (13). Articles by E. Nicole Meyer, Alison Rice, and Dawn M. Cornelio note the value of studying autobiographies, focusing on questions of identity and authenticity, both of which are pertinent to our society. In part 2, “New beginnings, New Horizons: Women Writers in Beginning and Intermediate French Classes,” the articles by Sage Goellner and Elizabeth Berglund Hall are increasingly relevant with a focus on online course structure and e-journaling, respectively. Joyce Johnston articulates ways to link advanced learners to beginners, inspiring us to bridge “the gap in contemporary language teaching” (62). Natalie Edwards and Christopher Hogarth present a course in which “the literary text [is] at the center” which “push[es] students to learn about the language and culture at the same time, rather than by introducing a false dichotomy between them” (70). This second section gives specific examples that support French instructors who wish to move beyond dichotomies of mode of teaching—online or in-person, of linguistic levels—beginner or advanced, and of content— linguistic or cultural. Five authors contribute to, “Colonial and Postcolonial French Women Writers: Teaching Diversity on Shifty Ground.” In the course he proposes, Laurence M. Porter introduces a diversity of writers from across the postcolonial Francophone world “to dissociate the issues of gender and postcolonial identity construction from a specific location, and to introduce students to the wide varieties of postcolonial feminist writing” (80). Rebecca E. Léal advocates an analysis of the shifting definition of “French” which shapes her course on “Multicultural Identities and Gender in Contemporary French Literature” (95). Florina Matu speaks of “disrupt[ing] stereotypes associated with Algerian women” (105) with strategies for teaching Algerian literature and film. Eric Touya de Marenne specifically responds to what he sees as the need for higher education “to offer alternative ways of thinking, [to] challenge ways of knowing, [to] interrogate sources of information, and [to] create a context for counternarrative” (111). These articles propose specific examples—ranging from detailed syllabus descriptions to theoretical approaches and reading material— to help French instructors address potential lacunae in their courses. Responding to a desire for interdisciplinarity, the fourth part “Interdisciplinary Approaches to French Studies”, brings the [End Page 124] French classroom together with the fields of Criminal Justice (Araceli Hernández-Laroche), History (Courtney Sullivan and Kerry Wynn), Music (Arline Cravens), and Queer Studies (CJ Gomolka), as well as incorporating French in boarder courses in institutions where there is no French major or minor (Shira Weidenbaum). All these fields, and others, as Hernández-Laroche indicates, gain “with the integration of languages, cultures, and world literatures” (121). Weidenbaum, as well as Sullivan and Wynn, push students beyond their comfort zones by discussing unlikable...