Freeze-thaw Durability Research Articles

Mechanical Properties and Freeze–Thaw Durability of Basalt Fiber Reactive Powder Concrete

Basalt fiber has a great advantage on the mechanical properties and durability of reactive powder concrete (RPC) because of its superior mechanical properties and chemical corrosion resistance. In this paper, basalt fiber was adopted to modified RPC, and plain reactive powder concrete (PRPC), basalt fiber reactive powder concrete (BFRPC) and steel fiber reactive powder concrete (SFRPC) were prepared. The mechanical properties and freeze–thaw durability of BFRPC with different basalt fiber contents were tested and compared with PRPC and SFRPC to investigate the effects of basalt fiber contents and fiber type on the mechanical properties and freeze–thaw durability of RPC. Besides, the mass loss rate and compressive strength loss rate of RPC under two freeze–thaw conditions (fresh-water freeze–thaw and chloride-salt freeze–thaw) were tested to evaluate the effects of freeze–thaw conditions on the freeze–thaw durability of RPC. The experiment results showed that the mechanical properties and freeze–thaw resistance of RPC increased as the basalt fiber content increase. Compared with the fresh-water freeze–thaw cycle, the damage of the chloride-salt freeze–thaw cycle on RPC was great. Based on the freeze–thaw experiment results, it was found that SFRPC was sensitive to the corrosion of chloride salts and compared with the steel fiber, the improvement of basalt fiber on the freeze–thaw resistance of RPC was great.

Pervious Pavement Blocks Made from Recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET): Fabrication and Engineering Properties

The importance of permeable and pervious pavements in reducing urban stormwater runoff and improving water quality is growing. Here, a new pervious pavement block material based on recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) waste is introduced, which could contribute to reducing global plastic waste via PET’s utilization for construction material fabrication. The engineering properties and durability of recycled PET aggregate (RPA) pervious blocks are verified through flexural tests, in situ permeability tests, clogging tests, and freeze-thaw durability tests, and their cost-effectiveness is assessed by comparison with existing permeable/pervious pavers. Their engineering and economic characteristics confirm that the RPA pervious blocks are suitable for use in urban paving.

Fresh and mechanical performance and freeze-thaw durability of steel fiber-reinforced rubber self-compacting concrete (SRSCC)

The self-compacting concrete (SCC) with the replacement of recycled rubber aggregates is limited for the field application due to high-performance requirements. The steel fiber was introduced to the rubberized SCC (RSCC) to enhance its performance and promote its application. The fresh and mechanical properties and durability performance of steel fiber-reinforced rubber self-compacting concrete (SRSCC) were evaluated. The SRSCC samples were prepared with replaced rubber aggregate based on fine aggregate volume percentages of 10%, 15%, and 25% and a consistent steel fiber ratio of 0.2%. The plain SCC and rubberized SCC samples were also produced for comparison. The fresh performance was evaluated with slump flow, J-ring flow, V-funnel, and U-box tests. The results showed that both filling and passing ability could be affected by the added steel fiber and rubber aggregate. However, the SRSCC could still meet most of the recommended criteria for passing and filling abilities when the rubber content is lower than 25%. Regarding the hardened properties, the compressive strength was reduced in rubber SCC samples with increased rubber contents by comparing with the control SCC samples. Nevertheless, SRSCC samples with 10% rubbers have higher splitting tensile strength than RSCC and plain SCC. Also, the SRSCC specimens showed excellent freeze-thaw resistance after 600 F-T cycles. The relative dynamic modulus of elasticity slightly increased without any dimensional expansion in SRSCC samples. In summary, the proposed SRSCC can meet required flowability, filling and passing abilities along with good mechanical and freeze-thaw performance. This study will provide lab test data for the applications of recycling waste tire aggregates in steel fiber-reinforced SCC.

Freeze-thaw durability and shear responses of cemented slope soil treated by microbial induced carbonate precipitation

Instability of slope soils under varying nature is one of the serious concerns in geotechnical engineering. Microbial induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) is a recently emerged, biological ground improvement technique, and that has the potential to enhance the shear strength, modify the surface conditions and promote the stability of deposits. This paper presents the experimental works conducted to investigate the durability and shear responses of MICP treated slope soil, demonstrating the feasibility of technique as potential alternative for slope soil stabilization. The first objective is to investigate the freeze–thaw (FT) response of MICP specimens, because FT cycles can affect the aggregate stability in regions with seasonal frost, which in turn impacts runoff and erosion in slopes. FT tests were performed as a credible indicator of durability, and the subjected specimens were monitored nondestructively (mass loss, S-wave, P-wave velocities). Secondly, shear tests were performed, and effective strength properties were analyzed at peak and residual states. FT test results suggest that contact cementation provides additional resistive forces in slope soil against progressive expansion of pore water during FT; however, aggregate stability is attributed to adequate cementation level which facilitates effective particle contacts. Shear test results indicate that MICP has influence on friction and cohesion parameters. However, the residual strength is mainly contributed by friction angle, only a minor effect from cohesion.

Use of Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Ternary Blended Portland Cement Concrete

The purposes of this study were to (a) investigate concrete pavement mixtures with recycled concrete aggregates using ternary blended cementitious binders, (b) measure the fresh and hardened properties of the concrete mixtures, and (c) assess the durability of concrete implementing the use of recycled coarse aggregates with ternary binders. Mixtures had recycled concrete aggregates at varying replacement rates. The binders were combinations of Portland cement, Class C and F fly ashes, and ground granulated blast furnace slag. At 50% replacement of virgin aggregates, some specimens showed comparable mechanical performance to the control mix. Performance is heavily tied to quality of recycled aggregates. The combined use of fly ash and blast furnace slag showed improvements in results for drying shrinkage, freeze–thaw durability, resistivity, and alkali–silica reaction mitigation.

Experimental evaluation of freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete

The ASTM C666 procedure is the common test method used for evaluating the freeze-thaw durability of conventional concrete, and it has been adapted for evaluating the freeze-thaw resistance of pervious concrete; however, it is argued the test method does not represent the field conditions of neither conventional nor pervious concrete. This study mainly focused on an experimental program to evaluate the freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete specimens using the JC446-91 test method, which measures the change in compressive strength and mass after exposure to freeze-thaw cycles, as an alternative for ASTM C666. Various parameters affecting the freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete, namely water to cement ratio (W/C), air entrainment, inclusion of sand, and coarse aggregate size were experimentally examined, and the results were evaluated using statistical analysis. It was observed that replacing 8% of coarse aggregate with sand and using a higher W/C resulted in higher strength and an improvement in the freeze-thaw durability. Although the positive effect of air-entraining admixture (AEA) on freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete has been manifested by previous researchers, it was not clearly observed in this study. Also, change in coarse aggregate size did not significantly affect the strength and freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete. This study revealed that the conditions and number of cycles used in JC446-91 were inadequate to evaluate the freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete, especially for strong mixes. Therefore, considering the criticisms against ASTM C666 in representing field conditions of pervious concrete, more compatible and realistic test methods are required to evaluate the freeze-thaw durability of pervious concrete.

Comparison of mechanical and durability properties of concrete and fired facing bricks

This experimental study compares the durability and mechanical properties of lightweight expanded clay aggregate (Leca) concrete facing blocks with clay, shale and refractory facing bricks. To this end, clay, shale and refractory facing bricks with the dimensions 25 × 70 × 300 mm in different colours and densities were provided from different factories. Then, 11 concrete brick mixes were made with dimensions, colour and density similar to the clay, shale, and refractory bricks that had been provided. Compressive strength, flexural strength, water absorption and freeze–thaw durability tests were applied to all of the bricks. Results showed that the concrete facing bricks had better durability and mechanical properties than the clay, shale and refractory ones, given the same densities. For a certain density, the compressive strength of clay, shale and refractory facing bricks is 40–66% of the concrete ones. Moreover, the Leca concrete facing brick with a density ≥1700 kg/m3 can meet the standard compressive strength and water absorption criteria.

Influence of Pore Structure Characteristics on the Mechanical and Durability Behavior of Pervious Concrete Material Based on Image Analysis

Pervious concrete has been widely used in parking lots and other lightweight streets. Performances of pervious concrete are strongly dependent on its pore structure characteristics. This paper investigates the relationship among porosity, permeability, compressive strength, durability and the pore structure characteristics of pervious concrete. The influences of basalt fiber and fine aggregate on the pervious concrete are also discussed. Pervious concrete specimens with different pore structures were prepared by combining basalt aggregate with size of 5–10 mm and 10–15 mm at different proportion. The pore structure characteristics such as area porosity, pore sizes, and pore distribution of pervious concrete were obtained and analyzed using image analysis method. Experimental results showed that the pore structure characteristics of pervious concrete have effects on its mechanical and durability behaviors. Homogeneous pore distribution and large distances between pores increase the compressive strength and improve freeze–thaw durability of pervious concrete. Due to the difference in the internal pore structure of pervious concretes, specimens with similar volumetric porosities had different permeability coefficients. A series of numerical models were regenerated through a MATLAB code using pore structural parameters derived from the image analysis method, then the numerical models were fed to ANSYS for meshing and further simulation. The comparison of the simulation and experimental results showed close accuracy, which verified the applied simulation analysis method based on image analysis technology.

Chemically Induced Water Repellency and the Freeze–Thaw Durability of Soils

Abstract Organosilane (OS) is a silicon-based coupling agent capable of producing hydrophobicity in soils. This study evaluated the applicability of OS in reducing the freeze–thaw impacts on subgra...

Effect of Using Soap Nut as Natural Foaming Agent on Mechanical Properties and Pore Distribution of High Strength Aerated Concrete

Aerated concrete is a type of concrete that contains pore in its matrix structure. This pores could provide spaces for water absorption which makes aerated concrete more durable toward freeze-thaw cycle. Many methods have been studied in forming an aerated concrete and using soap nut as aerating agent is more sustainable than other chemically formulated agent. Forming of pore inside concrete not only improve freeze-thaw cycle durability but also as places to store healing agent in concrete. This is important in developing a self-healing concrete especially a microbial induced healing. This paper aims to study the effect of using soap nut in high strength concrete. Four types of high strength concrete samples were prepared which are Control sample, AE2 with 2% of aerated soap nut, AE4 with 4% of aerated soap nut and AE6 with 6% of aerated soap nut. Total of 3nos. of 100mm cubes and 3nos. of 50mm cubes from each type of samples were prepared. Cubes samples of 100mm dimension were tested for water absorption and compressive strength while cube samples of 50mm dimension were split and analysed for pore distribution. The results showed that increase in addition of soap nut in concrete mixture resulted in decrease of compressive strength but minimal effect on its water absorption rate. Pore formation and dispersion were optimum in concrete with 4% and 6% inclusion of soap nut. In conclusion, 4% of aerated soap nut in high strength concrete present the optimum characteristic in producing well-dispersed pores of high strength aerated concrete.

Enhancing the Freeze-Thaw Durability of Concrete through Ice Recrystallization Inhibition by Poly(vinyl alcohol).

Frost weathering of porous materials caused by seasonal temperature changes is a major source of damage to the world’s infrastructure and cultural heritage. Here we investigate poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) addition as a means to enhance the freeze–thaw durability of concrete without compromising its structural or mechanical integrity. We evaluate the ice recrystallization inhibition activity of PVA in a cementitious environment and the impact of PVA on key structural and mechanical properties, such as cement hydration (products), microstructure, strength, as well as freeze–thaw resistance. We find that a low amount of PVA significantly reduces the surface scaling of concrete and displays excellent ice recrystallization inhibition in the saturated Ca(OH)2 solution, which has a similar pH value as cement pore solution, while it does not affect cement hydration, microstructure, nor its mechanical properties. These findings contribute to new insights on the freeze–thaw damage mechanism, and more importantly, we disclose a new direction for the design of concrete with excellent freeze–thaw resistance.

Durability Aspects of Chemically Stabilized Quarry By-Product Applications in Pavement Base and Subbase

Recent research conducted at the Illinois Center for Transportation evaluated sustainable applications of quarry by-products (QB) or QB blended with coarse recycled aggregates in chemically stabilized base and subbase layers in flexible pavements and proved that stabilized QB pavement applications show satisfactory pavement performance. This paper investigates the durability aspects of the evaluated QB applications, particularly in relation to freezing–thawing cycles during winter and wetting–drying conditions. Durability tests were conducted on samples extracted from field test sections previously evaluated with accelerated pavement testing (APT) as well as on new samples prepared in the laboratory with the same QB types and material combinations. Field-extracted samples were exposed to multiple cycles of freezing and thawing and wetting and drying throughout APT. Both sets of samples were evaluated by AASHTO T 135 and AASHTO T 136 for wet–dry and freeze–thaw durability, respectively. The results of durability testing indicated that cement-stabilized QB materials benefited from the long-term curing in the field, whereas fly ash-stabilized QB materials were less durable after exposure to multiple freeze–thaw and wet–dry cycles in the field. Field samples compacted at or near the maximum dry density (i.e., having higher relative densities) consistently showed better performance for durability. Further, durability samples made with QB materials from dolomitic aggregate sources, having higher magnesium oxide content in chemical composition, showed better field performances than those with limestone QB having high calcium oxide content. This was possibly linked to cementation observed in the dolomitic QB applications after being exposed to freeze–thaw cycles in three winters.

Experimental study on the influence of the different percentage of nanoparticles on strength and freeze–thaw durability of shotcrete

Shotcrete is widely used in mining, tunneling, and construction engineering. In cold areas, shotcrete layers expose to freeze–thaw cycles which affect its durability. The effects of nanoparticles on the mechanical properties and the frost resistance of shotcrete were examined. Thus nano-silica and nano-clay were used, as a cement replacement, at 0, 2, 4, and 6% by weight for preparing the samples. Different mix designs were exposed to freeze–thaw conditions based on ASTM C666-A and compressive strength, dynamic elastic modulus, water absorption, mass loss, length change, and physical appearances were monitored. The experimental results demonstrate that the sample containing 6% nano-silica has the best mechanical properties and the most resistant against freeze–thaw cycles. Adding nano-clay provides a lower enhancement than nano-silica; however, its effect on mechanical and durability properties is significant compared with the control sample. The optimum percentage for nano-clay was established to be 4%. Eventually, the results revealed that the application of the nanomaterials improves mechanical properties and frost durability of shotcrete due to these materials have pozzolanic and filling effects and resulted in less porous and denser structure.

Evaluation and improvement on the freeze-thaw durability performance of the polyurethane stabilized Pisha sandstone for water and soil conservation

Stabilization of the loose and fragile Pisha with the hydrophilic polyurethane material has been proved to be a time and cost-efficient protocol for the conservation of soil and water. However, the undesirable durability performance of the original W-OH binder material deteriorate its long-term conservation ability, especially under the freeze-thaw cycles. This study aims to improve the freeze-thaw durability performance of the W-OH composites through mixture design optimization and material modification. This study first investigates the correlation between the freeze-thaw resistance of the W-OH/Pisha sandstone composites and the concentration of the applied W-OH solution. The test results indicated both the compressive strength and elastic modulus of the W-OH based composites would decrease with freeze-thaw cycles and the samples prepared with higher concentration W-OH solution own better freeze-thaw resistance. Meanwhile, the elastic modulus of the W-OH composites decreased almost linearly with the freeze-thaw cycles, which is in accordance with the linear increase of the porosity of samples determined with the ultra-depth-of-field microscope. Based on these mechanism analyses, the modification of the W-OH material was further conducted with the Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) and air entrainer. The compressive strength test results indicate both the added EVA can enhance the freeze-thaw durability of the W-OH composites, which can be caused by the improved cohesion strength of the W-OH binder due to enhanced density. Similarly, the freeze-thaw durability of the W-OH composites was also enhanced with added air entrainer, which provided extra space for the freezing expansion. The research results of this study can enhance the freeze-thaw durability of the stabilized Pisha sandstone and its long-term conservation ability on soil and water.

Damage constitutive model of stirrup-confined recycled aggregate concrete after freezing and thawing cycles

The inferior quality of recycled coarse aggregates (RA) relative to natural coarse aggregates (NA) is usually considered as unfavorable for the freeze-thaw durability of concrete. In order to study the uniaxial compressive behavior and stress-strain relationship of stirrup-confined recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) after exposure to freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs), 48 short columns incorporating different levels of RA (γ% ;i.e., 0, 30%, 70% and 100%) were fabricated and subjected to different numbers of FTCs (N; i.e., 0, 100, 150 and 200), finally these specimens were submitted to uniaxial compression tests. The effect of RA substition and FTCs on the main mechanical parameters, such as compressive strength, peak strain and ductility coefficient were discussed. A uniaxial compression damage constitutive model based on the strain equivalence hypothesis and modified Loland damage theory was established, and the evolution rule of damage variables were also studied. It was shown that the concrete with RA exhibited good freezing resistance, but the peak strain of RAC was generally larger than that of NAC, and the ductility coefficient of RAC was less than that of NAC. Compared with the experimental data, the proposed damage constitutive model was shown to be applicable to confined RAC after different numbers of FTCs. For specimens with different levels of RA, the evolution law of damage variable as increasing of strain were similar. The growth rate of freezing-thawing damage variable increased as the increment of N when the RA replacement was less than 30%, but decreased when the RA replacement reached to 70% and 100%.

Mechanical properties and durability of rubberized and SBR latex modified rubberized concrete

This paper analyses how rubber waste, used as replacement of fine aggregate in concrete mixes, affects mechanical properties and durability of concrete: freeze-thaw resistance, water absorption by immersion, and sulphate resistance. Concrete was modified by carboxylated styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) latex to get better bonding properties between rubber and hardened cement paste. Control specimens were made of concrete mix without crumb rubber. Scrap tyre rubber powder (crumb rubber – CR) of fraction 0/1mm and 1/2mm was used as fine aggregate. CR was used to replace a portion of fine aggregate at 5% of the total aggregate content. CR of fraction 0/1mm was found to improve freeze-thaw resistance: freeze-thaw resistance test results were similar to those of concrete with traditional air entrainment systems. On the contrary, coarser rubber particles of fraction 1/2mm had a negative effect on freeze-thaw resistance of concrete. These findings can be explained by the smoother texture and a more regular shape of coarse rubber particles up to 2 mm in size and the rougher texture and irregular shape of fine particles up to 1 mm in size. A complex profile of rubber particle surface results in higher volume of air voids, higher closed porosity and higher freeze-thaw resistance of concrete modified with crumb rubber. The test results confirmed that concrete modified with crumb rubber of smaller fraction had higher closed porosity and higher freeze-thaw durability factor Kf. The results also confirmed that Kf values calculated from concrete porosity parameters can be conveniently used to predict freeze-thaw resistance and durability of concrete. The tests have shown that the modification of concrete with rubber waste has no positive effect on sulphate resistance, compressive strength and modulus of elasticity.

Properties of concrete with the addition of copper slag aggregate

Recently, the demand for various types of aggregates in Poland has been very significant. The resources of natural aggregates are shrinking and their exploitation has a large environmental impact. Recycled and artificial aggregates, including copper slag aggregates, are therefore increasingly used in road and railway construction as well as in general construction works. The paper presents the results of experimental research concerning the possibility of using copper slag aggregates for the production of structural concretes which, apart from their adequate compressive strength, were resistant to atmospheric conditions and thus could be used in bridges, roads, or other objects exposed to such special conditions. In the conducted research, the physical and mechanical characteristics of the materials included in the concrete were assessed, but the main emphasis was put on the research on the influence of the quantity of copper slag aggregates on the basic properties of concrete such as: compressive strength, water absorption, and freeze-thaw durability. The results of the research showed that copper aggregate can successfully replace natural aggregate in cement concretes. The copper slag aggregate showed better properties than the granite aggregate used in the reference concrete. All the concretes tested after 28 days met the concrete strength requirements. For the concretes with a copper slag aggregate content of 25% and 50% there was a few percent increase in compressive strength. On the other hand, for the concretes with 75% and 100% of the copper slag aggregate, compression strength drops of up to 14% were recorded. The water absorption of the reference concrete was worse than that of all the concretes containing copper slag aggregates. Both the reference concrete and all the concretes with copper slag aggregate meet the requirements for freeze-thaw durability grade F150. Concretes with copper slag aggregate subjected to 150 freezing and thawing cycles exhibit a compression strength drop of up to 4%.

Effect of Freeze-Thaw Cycles on the Properties of Asphalt Pavements in Cold Regions: A Review

Asphalt pavements weaken over time due to the effect of environment and heavy traffic loading on paving constituents. Rutting, fatigue cracking and low temperature cracking are the major distresses responsible for degradation of the pavement and consequently leads to the failure of flexible pavement. Asphalt pavement is directly exposed to atmosphere and hence, suffers the effects of weather, environment and automobiles. Apparently, for a new asphalt pavement, even though there is no vehicle loading or other artificial activities, deterioration can also appear under climate and environment effects. In recent years, thermal cracks and low temperature distresses have become key concern for asphalt pavements in cold regions. In case of rutting of asphalt mixtures, aggregate characteristics play an important role, whereas, the properties of binder are more related to fatigue. Although the properties of asphalt binder can have a great influence on the performance of pavement, the role of aggregate gradation cannot be ignored in providing resistance to rutting and reducing permanent deformation. Gradation has significant effects on asphalt mixture’s Freeze-Thaw (F-T) durability. This paper reviews research conducted on the various properties viz., fatigue, rutting, air voids, compressive strength, etc. of bituminous mixes which are under the influence of F-T cycles. This paper also discusses the effect of F-T cycles on stability of bituminous mixes.

A 3D petrographic analysis for concrete freeze-thaw protection

Petrographic analysis is routinely implemented to measure air void parameters for predicting freeze-thaw durability of concrete. The 1D or 2D measurements obtained from polished concrete sections are used to infer 3D protection of the paste. Since an arbitrary point in a section view may be partially protected by air voids that are not intersected, a stereological model is proposed to consider both intersected and un-intersected voids. The model is tested with a group of concrete mixtures with varying air entrainment, mix proportion, and aggregate type. As compared with the 2D analysis, this 3D analysis indicates a higher percent of cement paste being protected. When equating the protection range to Powers' spacing factor, it is found that roughly 98% of paste is protected in 3D. Findings in this study also align with results obtained by other authors using numerical simulation and computed tomography. This model offers a realistic concrete freeze-thaw assessment.

Frost Resistance Number to Assess Freeze and Thaw Resistance of Non-Autoclaved Aerated Concretes Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag and Micro-Silica.

Aerated concrete (AC), such as cellular concrete, autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC), and non-autoclaved aerated concrete (NAAC), having excellent insulation properties, is commonly used in buildings located in cold regions, such as Nur-Sultan in Kazakhstan, the second coldest capital city in the world, because it can contribute to a large energy saving. However, when the AC is directly exposed to the repeated freeze and thaw (F-T) cycles, its F-T resistance can be critical because of lower density and scaling resistance of the AC. Moreover, the evaluation of the F-T resistance of the AC based on the durability factor (DF) calculated by using the relative dynamic modulus of elasticity may overestimate the frost resistance of the AC due to the millions of evenly distributed air voids in spite of its weak scaling resistance. In the present study, the F-T resistance of NAAC mixtures with various binary or ternary combinations of ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS) and micro-silica was assessed mainly using the ASTM C 1262/C1262M-16 Standard Test Method for Evaluating the Freeze-Thaw Durability of Dry-Cast Segmental Retaining Wall Units and Related Concrete Units. Critical parameters to affect the F-T resistance performance of the NAAC mixture such as compressive strength, density, water absorption, air–void ratio (VR), moisture uptake, durability factor (DF), weight loss (Wloss), the degree of saturation (Sd), and residual strength (Sres) were determined. Based on the determined parameter values, frost resistance number (FRN) has been developed to evaluate the F-T resistance of the NAAC mixture. Test results showed that all NAAC mixtures had good F-T resistance when they were evaluated with DF. Binary NAAC mixtures generally showed higher Sd and Wloss and lower DF and Sres than those of ternary NAAC mixtures. It was determined that the Sd was a key factor for the F-T resistance of NAAC mixtures. Finally, the developed FRN could be an appropriate tool to evaluate the F-T resistance of the NAAC mixture.