Free-riding Phenomenon Research Articles

Free Riding of Vehicle Companies under Dual-Credit Policy: An Agent-Based System Dynamics Model

The dual-credit policy promotes green transition in automobile companies. This paper investigates the dual-credit policy framework in the Chinese automotive industry, with a focus on the phenomenon of free riding. This occurs when traditional vehicle manufacturers within an alliance benefit from the excess credits generated by a transitioning vehicle company without fully committing to their own green transitioning. The focus of this study lies on an alliance constituted by a transitioning vehicle company in partnership with two traditional vehicle manufacturers, all interconnected via equity ties. Utilizing an agent-based system dynamics model, this study explores the strategic behaviors emerging from such credit collaborations and their consequent effects on operational efficiency and financial performance. The findings reveal that 1. free riding negatively impacts the transitioning company’s revenue but benefits the alliance by easing transition pressures and boosting collective performance; 2. stricter policies increase intra-alliance credit transfers and performance, while lower credit prices reduce transfer value and harm the transitioning company’s earnings. This study implies that transitioning vehicle companies with equity-linked partners can benefit from a nuanced understanding of how policy mechanisms interact with alliance dynamics under free riding. By adjusting credit transfer strategies in line with market conditions and policy trends, they can better navigate the dual-credit policy landscape, balancing individual profitability with the needs of the broader alliance and long-term sustainability goals.

The attenuating effect of green finance on environmental quality and its mechanism: Spatial modified PTRM model

The traditional Panel Threshold Regression Model (PTRM) neglects spatial factors, causing model bias in prior research on green finance's environmental impact. To address this shortcoming, a Spatial Modified PTRM Model is constructed to investigate green finance's spatial threshold effects on the environment. Moreover, this study analyzes temporal and regional heterogeneities and explores the influence mechanisms underlying the observed attenuating in environmental effects. Results show that: (1) The "more developed, less effective" phenomenon in green finance's environmental impact is confirmed, instead of cumulative enhancement, as green finance intensity surpasses thresholds around −0.48 to −0.61, its effects decrease by approximately 66.3%–156.1% units. (2) Temporal and regional heterogeneities in the attenuating phenomenon are explored, in 2015, the attenuation phenomenon initiates, transitioning from statistical ''insignificance'' to ''significance'', from ''rapid development'' to ''plateau'', and from ''single high-value peak'' to ''single low-value peak'', also, developed green finance regions experience the most significant attenuation, up to 76.0% more pronounced than less developed regions. (3) The unbalanced regional distribution and the free-riding phenomenon are confirmed as two factors contributing to the attenuation, with the ellipse center shifting southward and the index deviating since around 2015, meanwhile, the free-riding intensity has increased over time, surging from around 0.10 in the early stages to approximately 0.40 in 2021.

Promoting consumer returns in closed-loop supply chains under cap-and-trade regulation: A cooperative recycling advertising perspective

Under carbon cap-and-trade regulation, to control carbon emissions and improve the recycling efficiency of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) from the traditional offline recycling channel, more enterprises attempt to simultaneously combine the online recycling platform with the digital transformation of the supply chain. Based on a closed-loop supply chain (CLSC) with dual recycling channels and considering recycling advertising invested both in offline and online recycling channels, this paper attempts to explore the optimal recycling advertising mode which can both achieve economic and environmental performance under cap-and-trade regulation. Therefore, game models including a manufacturer and above either recycler are established, which are respectively correspond to four recycling advertising modes: manufacturer cooperates with neither recycler (MO mode), manufacturer only cooperates with the offline retailer (MR mode), manufacturer only cooperates with the online recycling platform (MT mode), and manufacturer cooperates with either recycler (MRT mode). Consequently, this paper solves the optimal decisions of the tripartite and focuses on the analysis of the impact of cooperative (competitive) recycling advertising under cap-and-trade regulation. By comparing the profits and total carbon emissions of the whole CLSC under four recycling advertising modes, the results indicate that: cooperative advertising between the manufacturer and two recyclers can achieve economic and environmental performance for the whole CLSC if the free-riding phenomenon occurs in recycling advertising. Otherwise, influenced by competitive recycling advertising, the above mode turns to the suboptimal one for the profits of two recyclers and the total carbon emissions of the CLSC. Moreover, driven by economic benefits, cooperative advertising will eventually become a consensus, but the total carbon emissions may not always be the least.

Dynamic pricing and emission reduction efforts in a dual-channel green supply chain under bidirectional free riding

In this study, a tripartite dynamic game framework is introduced to address the joint carbon reduction challenges among green supply chain members and the bidirectional free-riding behavior of digital and brick-and-mortar retailers. The model specifically involves a manufacturer, a digital retailer, and a brick-and-mortar retailer, examining their optimal pricing and emission reduction decisions, as well as the extent of the bidirectional free-riding effect. The findings indicate that both the manufacturer's enhancement of emission reduction efforts and the retailers' amplification of their promotional endeavors result in increased prices and profits. The influence of a retailer's low-carbon reputation on the manufacturer's carbon reduction initiatives depends on the impact of the manufacturer's own emission reduction level on their efforts. Furthermore, due to the bidirectional free-riding phenomenon, the effect of the digital (brick-and-mortar) retailer's low-carbon reputation on the promotional efforts of the brick-and-mortar (digital) retailer relies on the influence of their own low-carbon reputation on their promotional initiatives. In addition, the bidirectional free-riding behavior of digital and brick-and-mortar retailers is closely associated with factors such as the coefficient of the retailer's promotional effort level, the coefficient of the retailer's promotional cost, the attenuation rate of low-carbon reputation, and other parameters.

Collaboration in Participant-Centric Federated Learning: A Game-Theoretical Perspective

Federated learning (FL) is a promising distributed framework for collaborative artificial intelligence model training while protecting user privacy. A bootstrapping component that has attracted significant research attention is the design of incentive mechanism to stimulate user collaboration in FL. The majority of works adopt a broker-centric approach to help the central operator to attract participants and further obtain a well-trained model. Few works consider forging participant-centric collaboration among participants to pursue an FL model for their common interests, which induces dramatic differences in incentive mechanism design from the broker-centric FL. To coordinate the selfish and heterogeneous participants, we propose a novel analytic framework for incentivizing effective and efficient collaborations for participant-centric FL. Specifically, we respectively propose two novel game models for contribution-oblivious FL (COFL) and contribution-aware FL (CAFL), where the latter one implements a minimum contribution threshold mechanism. We further analyze the uniqueness and existence for Nash equilibrium of both COFL and CAFL games and design efficient algorithms to achieve equilibrium solutions. Extensive performance evaluations show that there exists free-riding phenomenon in COFL, which can be greatly alleviated through the adoption of CAFL model with the optimized minimum threshold.

Emergence of Social Norms in Metanorms Game With High-Order Interaction Topology

In an autonomous system, rational agents aim to maximize their benefits. Rational agents gradually give up cooperation with others and only request services, which leads to the phenomenon of free-riding. This phenomenon generally exists in the real society and application system. Therefore, how to reduce the behavior, which is similar to free-riding, has become an important research topic. In addition, the traditional pairwise interaction network cannot truly reflect the interaction properties of cooperative events. Social norms provide an effective way to promote cooperation for autonomous systems. Axelrod's metanorm game model achieves the emergence of social norms by conducting punishment to connivance based on punishing defection. However, links in networks only allow for pairwise interactions. Therefore, we introduce hypergraphs, which are more suitable to reflect group interaction to model metanorm games. The establishment efforts of norms are examined on hypergraphs (uniform random hypergraph (URH), hyperdegree-heterogeneous random hypergraphs, and real-world hypergraphs). We show that the difference in group sizes affects norms emergence of agents and realize the establishment of social norms on URH. To a certain extent, the probability of being seen is positively correlated with agents' vengefulness and learning time and negatively correlated with boldness. However, the usage of the boldness and vengefulness learning (BV-learning) algorithm on HRHs cannot make norms emergence because leavers cannot participate in learning and the fixed learning step. Therefore, we propose the dynamic relevance BV-learning algorithm to overcome the aforementioned problems, so hub agents and leavers can jointly establish better social norms. We also verify the evolution process of agents' cooperation rate by BV-learning and the dynamic relevance BV-learning, respectively, which demonstrate that the establishment of social norms can indeed promote agents' cooperation. Finally, in order to illustrate the universality of the dynamic relevance BV-learning clearly, we study norms establishment on real-world hypergraphs by and compare it with BV-learning. It can be found that the dynamic relevance BV-learning can effectively establish social norms on real-world hypergraphs.

Evolutionary Game Analysis of Abandoned-Bike-Sharing Recycling: Impact of Recycling Subsidy Policy

The launch of large-scale bike sharing in China has effectively met the demand for low-carbon short-distance travel, but it has also led to the emergence of a large number of abandoned bikes, which is called the “bike-sharing siege”. In order to achieve the sustainable development of the bike-sharing industry, this paper discusses how to encourage bike-sharing companies to recycle and reuse abandoned bikes and improve the efficiency of local government financial resources based on the promotion of the EPR system. We apply the evolutionary game to investigate the interaction mechanism of complex behaviors between local governments and bike-sharing companies under two subsidy policies: a fixed recycling subsidy and regressive recycling subsidy. The results show that both recycling subsidy policies have diminishing marginal effects. In addition to incentives, local governments need to unify bike-sharing parking, establish bike-sharing monitoring platforms, and reasonably allocate bike parking spaces to ensure the quality of the urban environment. Under effective regulation, by implementing a regressive recycling subsidy policy and setting a rational amount for the recycling subsidy, local governments can effectively promote the EPR system, strengthen the environmental responsibility of companies, and avoid the “free-rider phenomenon”. Based on the current situation in China, this research provides references for each local government to formulate management policies from the perspective of subsidy policy.

Dynamic Cooperation of the O2O Supply Chain Based on Time Delays and Bidirectional Free-Riding

Advertising and service investment can enhance brand goodwill to increase the sales of branded goods. However, the impact of advertising and services on brand goodwill is not immediate but delayed. At the same time, due to the different service characteristics provided by various channels, the phenomenon of bidirectional free-riding occurs. Therefore, this paper studies the dynamic cooperation between service and advertising in the O2O (online to offline) supply chain dominated by brand owners and explores the impacts of advertising, service delay and service free-riding among channels on the dynamic cooperation decisions of the O2O supply chain. A differential game model between brands and retailers is constructed by incorporating the delay effect and the bidirectional free-riding phenomenon. The optimal advertising and service strategies and performance problems of O2O supply chain enterprises under a centralized decision, brand cost-sharing decision and bilateral cost-sharing decision are compared and analyzed. The influence of delay time, showrooming and webrooming effects on the profit of each firm is investigated by example. The results show that the service strategy, advertising strategy and brand goodwill of the O2O supply chain members are optimal under a centralized decision. Still, the supply chain profit is not necessarily optimal under the delay time, showrooming and webrooming effect coefficients. Bilateral cost-sharing contracts can achieve Pareto improvement of supply chain performance. Appropriate setting of a bilateral cost-sharing ratio can adjust the adverse effects of delay and bidirectional free-riding. The long-term strategies to deal with the delay and bidirectional free-riding phenomena are as follows: the bilateral cost-sharing contract can improve corporate profits. Setting the wholesale price, online direct-selling price and service-sharing ratio by brand owners can effectively promote retailers’ investment in service, achieving a win-win situation. Retailers maintain high pricing and service levels to enhance the brand premium ability of physical stores and achieve long-term development.

Domestic Waste Classification Behavior and Its Deviation from Willingness: Evidence from a Random Household Survey in Beijing.

To realize widespread domestic waste classification (DWC), deviation between residents' waste classification willingness (WCW) and waste classification behavior (WCB) needs to be reduced. Based on an extended framework of the theory of planned behavior, this study investigates residents' WCW, WCB and their deviation through a random face-to-face survey of 632 households in Beijing. By employing the ordered logit model, determinants have been empirically revealed. We find that there is a deviation between WCW and WCB. 54.3% of respondents reported a higher degree of WCW than that of WCB. The deviation is determined by specific external conditions, including attitudes and norms associated with other subjects that are not authoritative regulators, and the implementation of various policy instruments for DWC. The higher the satisfaction with the services of property enterprises, the higher the deviation is. The positive WCB of peers in communities failed to create positive subjective norms, but instead exacerbated free-rider phenomenon by inducing their negative WCB. Flat-rate charge, publicity measures and the effectiveness of DWC within community can significantly reduce the deviation. On this basis, policy suggestions are put forward to further reduce the deviation and improve the rate of DWC.

Socially-differentiated urban metabolism methodology informs equity in coupled carbon-air pollution mitigation strategies: insights from three Indian cities

A differentiated urban metabolism methodology is developed to quantify inequality and inform social equity in urban infrastructure strategies aimed at mitigating local in-boundary PM2.5 and co-beneficially reducing transboundary greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The method differentiates community-wide local PM2.5 and transboundary GHG emission contributions by households of different income strata, alongside commercial and industrial activities. Applied in three Indian cities (Delhi, Coimbatore, and Rajkot) through development of new data sets, method yields key insights that across all three cities, top-20% highest-income households dominated motorized transportation, electricity, and construction activities, while poorest-20% homes dominated biomass and kerosene use, resulting in the top-20% households contributing more than three times GHGs as the bottom-20% homes. Further, after including commercial and industrial users, top-20% households contributed as much or more in-boundary PM2.5 emissions than all commercial OR all industrial emitters (e.g. Delhi’s top-20% homes contributed 21% of in-boundary PM2.5 similar to industries at 21%. These results enabled co-benefit analysis of various infrastructure transition strategies on the horizon, finding only three could yield both significant GHG and PM2.5 reductions (>2%-each): (a) Modest 10% efficiency improvements among top-20% households, industry and commercial sectors, requiring a focus on wealthiest homes; (b) Phasing out all biomass and kerosene use within cities (impacting poorest); (c) Replacing gas and diesel vehicles with renewable electric vehicles. The differentiated PM2.5 and GHG emissions data-informed social equity in the design of the three co-beneficial infrastructure transitions by: (a)-prioritizing free/subsidized clean cooking fuels to poorest homes; (b)-increasing electricity block rates and behavioral nudging for wealthiest homes; and, (c)-prioritizing electrification of mass transit and promoting electric two-wheelers ahead of providing subsidies for electric cars, where the free-rider phenomenon can occur, which benefits wealthiest homes. The methodology is broadly translatable to cities worldwide, while the policy insights are relevant to rapidly urbanizing Asia and Africa to advance clean, low-carbon urban infrastructure transitions.

The Impact of Public Budget Distortion on the Defence Capabilities of the New European Nato Member States

Abstract Armies’ capabilities are determined by their endowments of resources. The economic crisis that began in 2008 has distorted public budgets, which forced states to start cost-cutting policies. If we focus on the policy of new NATO member states, we can observe that public expenditure cuts affect defense budgets in different states in various ways. If we compare the defense capabilities of countries at the beginning of the economic crisis and ten years after the outbreak of the crisis, the reduction in defense spending is reflected in the loss of some defense capabilities due to the limited possibilities of maintaining and modernizing existing military equipment. Countries that have reduced their defense spending over the long term show a more significant loss of defense capability than countries that reduced their defense spending only in the period immediately after the economic crisis. The different approach to defense spending confirms the previously described phenomenon of free-riding by some NATO member states, which rely on the defense capabilities of their alliance partners while they are slowly losing their defense capabilities.

How does the fragmentation of pasture affect grassland ecology?——Evidence from typical pastoral areas in China

Land fragmentation has a negative impact on agricultural production and human life and is an important indicator to measure pasture ecology. This study aims to reveal the relationship between the fragmentation of pasture and pasture ecology in typical pastoral areas of China. Introducingthe concept of grass-livestock balance (GLB) is to estimate the ecological protection status of the pasture, andthe revised pasture stock carrying capacity index is used to measure whether the GLB is maintained in the pasture. Meanwhile, the study reveals how to avoid the negative effects of pasture fragmentation through different grazing patterns. The results are as follows: (1) Pasture fragmentation is one of the important factors that prevent herder families from achieving GLB. (2) Rest grazing and rotational grazing can avoid the poor conditions caused by the fragmentation of pasture and achieve the GLB. Furthermore, rotational grazing can better alleviate the income pressure of herders than resting grazing. (3) Community-based nomadism has no significant effect on the GLB. That is possibly because communities integrate scattered land plots, but pasture roads, water and other public resources are poorly managed, and the “free-rider phenomenon” is common. Therefore, we argue that the pasture fragmentation problem should be solved using rest grazing and rotational grazing in different areas. Besides, more public service facilities should be built in the pastoral areas, and the government should strengthen their supervision to promote ecological restoration in pasture and increase herdsmen’s income.

Optimal strategies for stakeholders of Fukushima nuclear waste water discharge in Japan

The Japanese government intends to discharge radioactive nuclear waste water from the Fukushima nuclear reactor into the Pacific Ocean, which will cause irreversible and catastrophic ocean ecological pollution. In response to this irresponsible practice, there are strong domestic and international objections. However, the Japanese government's decision to discharge has not been changed. This study uses evolutionary game theory to construct a game model of the optimal strategic behavior of the Japanese government, stakeholder countries, and the domestic public in the proposed nuclear waste water discharge and explores the stable equilibrium point of the strategy combination by analyzing the interests of the three decision makers. The results are shown as follows: first, the participation of stakeholder countries will prevent the Japanese government from violating the marine environmental policy. This will ensure a safe resolution of the nuclear waste water incident in Japan. Second, the participation of the Japanese public can serve as a synergistic regulation. However, there is also a possibility of a free-rider phenomenon. Third, the strategy choice of the Japanese government is mainly related to factors such as the cost of nuclear waste water treatment devices and the storage cost of nuclear waste water. Lastly, relevant countermeasures and recommendations are put forward to promote effective monitoring by stakeholder countries and domestic people. It also promotes the Japanese government to abide by the marine environmental policy. Studying the strategic choices of stakeholders can influence recommendations for the formulation of international marine environmental policies under the current situation.

Effects of defensive cooperation strategy on the evolution of cooperation in social dilemma

Punishment and reward are effective ways to sustain cooperation among selfish groups. Researches show that the ultimate result of selflessness is self-interest. This paper considers that individuals take defensive measures to reduce losses in the face of unknown risks. Defensive cooperators need to pay the defensive cost. When they interact with unconditional defectors, the defensive cooperators gain benefit due to defensive behavior, while the unconditional defectors lose some benefit due to the defense of defensive cooperators. Results show that in the well-mixed population, reducing defensive cost and improving defensive benefit can promote cooperation, and maintain a higher cooperation level unchanged within a larger range of temptation. In the structured population, the three strategies perform the phenomenon of cyclic dominance, that is unconditional cooperators dominate defensive cooperators who dominate unconditional defectors who dominate unconditional cooperators. It is worth noting that both in the well-mixed population and structured population, three strategies have obvious phased advantages with regard to defensive benefit. Lower defensive benefit leads to an advantage for unconditional defectors. If defensive benefit is moderate, the weakened competitiveness of unconditional defectors leads defensive cooperators dominate. And excessive defensive benefit results in the second-order free-rider phenomenon of the unconditional cooperation strategy. In addition, structured population do not always support cooperation better than well-mixed population. When the defensive cost is small and defensive benefit is high, the spatial effect can enhance network reciprocity. More generally, our results prove that defensive self-interested behavior leads to the maintenance of cooperation, which provides a new perspective for understanding the cooperation evolutionary.

Share-Ratio-Based Incentive Mechanism for File Sharing With BitTorrent Protocol

Several P2P file-sharing networks were successfully deployed and are used by millions of Internet users globally to share files (such as movies, video clips, software systems, e-books, etc.) cooperatively over the Internet. These networks were designed with cooperation in mind, therefore, several incentive mechanisms were devised to encourage cooperation among downloaders and yet the free-riding phenomenon remains a threat to these networks since free-riders could indulge in acts such as whitewashing, Sybil, and collusion attacks to escape penalties imposed by the incentive mechanisms. This paper proposes a share-ratio-based incentive mechanism for P2P file-sharing networks where files are shared via BitTorrent protocol. The proposed incentive mechanism is not prone to Sybil and collusion attacks, and it was designed to simultaneously: (1) encourage cooperation, (2) provide fairness to new downloaders, and (3) deter free-riding while resisting whitewashing attack. The proposed incentive mechanism does not require any central entity to be realized and it was designed in existing terminologies used in P2P file-sharing networks, hence, it is easy to implement. In addition to the accomplishment of the set objectives, the proposed incentive mechanism has successfully deterred free-riding as shown by the experiments conducted.

The Covid-19 pandemic: collective action and European public policy under stress

Abstract The European continent faces an apocalyptic pandemic that poses mortal danger to millions of citizens. This paper seeks to address the role played by European public policy in addressing the Covid-19 pandemic. Currently, each Member State across Europe is applying its own measures to deal with the coronavirus; namely, decentralised decision-making that could trigger political tensions among the states. The paper argues that European public policy must change rapidly and fundamentally if these tensions are to be successfully managed; otherwise, such policy might simply cease to exist. Moreover, the known and notorious problem of collective action, information asymmetries, irrationality, negative externalities and the related free-riding phenomenon persistently are distorting the Member States’ combined efforts, resulting in deficient attempts to contain the spread of Covid-19. The paper also argues that the current unprecedented outbreak of this superspreading virus calls for a bigger EU-wide coordinated response. We argue that the Covid-19 pandemic is a good example of an area in which the central EU level holds a comparative advantage over lower levels of government. In addition, the paper offers several substantive insights into ways to improve the public policy response in the ‘war’ against Covid-19.

Online finance with dual channels and bidirectional free-riding effect

This study examines a dual-channel supply chain structure, in which the retailer and e-commerce platform can free ride the other’s sales efforts and the e-commerce platform can provide online finance services to the capital-constrained supplier. This study proves that bidirectional free riding under online finance can provide extra benefits to supply chain participants such as boosting total market share and enhancing participants’ profits. Through the formulation of a comprehensive model incorporating the price substitution effect, the positive effect of free riding and the negative effect of being free ridden, and different sales efforts and associated cost factors, we examine the impacts of free-riding behavior and online finance adoption on optimal pricing, efforts, and quantity, as well as on channel structure, market share, and pricing competition. We found that, in the same free-riding scenario, more retailer and e-commerce platform efforts lead to higher pricing. Being free ridden motivates participants to input more effort. Our study proves connections exist between free riding and online finance. We find the adoption of online finance between the supplier and e-commerce platform influences the retailer’s efforts input and that the free-riding phenomenon between the retailer and e-commerce platform affects the supplier’s willingness to accept online finance. We also extend our analytics to different scenarios with stochastic demand or limited loan-offering options. This study’s findings can guide firms to better implement efforts and pricing, adjust channel structure and use online finance to increase profits.

The COVID-19 Pandemic: Collective Action and European Public Policy under Stress

The European continent faces an apocalyptic pandemic that poses mortal danger to millions of citizens. This paper seeks to address the role played by European public policy in addressing the COVID-19 pandemic. Currently, each Member State across Europe is applying its own measures to deal with the coronavirus; namely, decentralised decision-making that could trigger political tensions among the states. The paper argues that European public policy must change rapidly and fundamentally if these tensions are to be successfully managed; otherwise, such policy might simply cease to exist. Moreover, the known and notorious problem of collective action, information asymmetries, irrationality, negative externalities and the related free-riding phenomenon persistently are distorting the Member States’ combined efforts, resulting in deficient attempts to contain the spread of COVID-19. The paper also argues that the current unprecedented outbreak of this superspreading virus calls for a bigger EU-wide coordinated response. We argue that the COVID-19 pandemic is a good example of an area in which the central EU level holds a comparative advantage over lower levels of government. In addition, the paper offers several substantive insights into ways to improve the public policy response in the “war” against COVID-19.

Quantum Game Analysis on Extrinsic Incentive Mechanisms for P2P Services

Peer-to-peer (P2P) services such as mobile P2P transmissions and resource sharing, provide efficient methods to deliver data without the deployment of any central server. Nevertheless, the free-riding phenomenon inherit in such services presses a need for incentive mechanisms to stimulate contributions of data transmissions or sharing. As a result, it is imperative to answer the following questions: whether , and if so to what extent , an incentive mechanism can invoke such contributions? To answer these questions, we employ an $n$ n -player continuous quantum game model to analyze the general extrinsic incentive mechanisms as well as the reputation-based incentive mechanisms, a typical class of extrinsic incentive mechanisms. We focus on studying the extrinsic incentive mechanisms in this paper due to their wide scope of applications stemming from the fact that they promote cooperative behaviors by offering rewards rather than depending on the internal bounds (e.g., social ties) among peers, which may not always exist between any pair of peers. To the best of our knowledge, we are the first to analyze the extrinsic incentive mechanisms for P2P services from a quantum game perspective. Such a perspective is adopted because the extended strategy space in the quantum game broadens the range for searching optimal strategies and the introduction of entanglement makes the proposed analytical frameworks more practical due to the consideration of the peers’ relationships imposed by the rewards in extrinsic incentive mechanisms. Our quantum game-based analytical framework is generic because it is compatible with classic game-based schemes. The analytical results can provide a straightforward insight on evaluating the potential of the extrinsic incentive mechanisms and can serve as important references for designing new extrinsic incentive mechanisms.

PEMBONCENG GRATIS GERAKAN REFORMASI DI INDONESIA

Free-rider is one of the problems faced in many social movements. The problem
 is with those who benefit much from a social movement while never investing, or
 invest very little, into the movement; meanwhile those who invest and sacrifice
 much get almost nothing from it. This study is an attempt to explore whether or
 not there is a free rider phenomenon in the Reformation Movement in Indonesia.
 The findings of studies show that the Reformation Movement did not bring about
 significant change for most people in Indonesia except for the free riders: the
 politicians, top military officials, and big corporations (entrepreneurs) who were
 once part of the previous Suharto Regime. This study suggests that there should
 be change in the strategies and tactics of the movement to prevent a free rider
 problem and give more opportunities to people at the grassroots to benefit from
 the movement.
 
 <b>Kata-kata kunci :</b> Gerakan reformasi, agenda reformasi, pembonceng 
 gratis, masalah pembonceng gratis, revitalisasi gerakan reformasi.