Free Recall Research Articles

Modeling Effects of Rumination on Free Recall Using ACT-R.

Ruminative thinking, characterized by a recurrent focus on negative and self-related thought, is a key cognitive vulnerability marker of depression and, therefore, a key individual difference variable. This study aimed to develop a computational cognitive model of rumination focusing on the organization and retrieval of information in memory, and how these mechanisms differ in individuals prone to rumination and individuals less prone to rumination. Adaptive Control of Thought-Rational (ACT-R) was used to develop a rumination model by adding memory chunks with negative valence to the declarative memory. In addition, their strength of association was increased to simulate recurrent negative focus, thereby making it harder to disengage from. The ACT-R models were validated by comparing them against two empirical datasets containing data from control and depressed participants. Our general and ruminative models were able to recreate the benchmarks of free recall while matching the behavior exhibited by the control and the depressed participants, respectively. Our study shows that it is possible to build a computational theory of rumination that can accurately simulate the differences in free recall dynamics between control and depressed individuals. Such a model could enable a more fine-tuned investigation of underlying cognitive mechanisms of depression and potentially help to improve interventions by allowing them to more specifically target key mechanisms that instigate and maintain depression.

Distinctiveness, not dual coding, explains the picture-superiority effect.

The picture-superiority effect is the finding that memory for pictures exceeds memory for words on many tasks. According to dual-coding theory, the pictures' mnemonic advantage stems from their greater likelihood to be labelled relative to words being imaged. In contrast, distinctiveness accounts hold that the greater variability of pictures compared to words leads to their mnemonic advantage. Ensor, Surprenant, et al. tested these accounts in old/new and forced-choice recognition by increasing the physical distinctiveness of words and decreasing the physical distinctiveness of pictures. Half of the words were presented in standard black font, and half were presented in varying font styles, font sizes, font colours, and capitalisation patterns. Half of the pictures were presented in black and white and half in colour. Consistent with the physical-distinctiveness account but contrary to the dual-coding account, the picture-superiority effect was eliminated when comparing the black-and-white pictures to distinctive words. In the present study, we extend Ensor, Surprenant, et al.'s results to associative recognition and free recall. Results were consistent with physical distinctiveness. We argue that dual-coding theory is no longer a viable explanation of the picture-superiority effect.

Methodological moderators of average outdegree centrality: A meta-analysis of child and adolescent friendship networks

AbstractEmpirical articles vary considerably in how they measure child and adolescent friendship networks. This meta-analysis examines four methodological moderators of children’s and adolescents’ average outdegree centrality in friendship networks: boundary specification, operational definition of friendship, unlimited vs. fixed choice design, and roster vs. free recall design. Specifically, multi-level random effects models were conducted using 261 average outdegree centrality estimates from 71 English-language peer-reviewed articles and 55 unique datasets. There were no significant differences in average outdegree centrality for child and adolescent friendship networks bounded at the classroom, grade, and school-levels. Using a name generator focused on best/close friends yielded significantly lower average outdegree centrality estimates than using a name generator focused on friends. Fixed choice designs with under 10 nominations were associated with significantly lower estimates of average outdegree centrality while fixed choice designs with 10 or more nominations were associated with significantly higher estimates of average outdegree centrality than unlimited choice designs. Free recall designs were associated with significantly lower estimates of average outdegree centrality than roster designs. Results are discussed within the context of their implications for the future measurement of child and adolescent friendship networks.

Impact of process interference on memory encoding and retrieval processes in dual-task situations

Dual-tasks at the memory encoding stage have been shown to decrease recall performance and impair concurrent task performance. In contrast, studies on the effect of dual-tasks at the memory retrieval stage observed mixed results. Which cognitive mechanisms are underlying this dual-task interference is still an unresolved question. In the present study, we investigated the influence of a concurrent reaction-time task on the performance in a long-term memory task in two experiments. In Experiment 1, participants performed an auditory-verbal free recall memory task and a visual-manual spatial Stroop task in a single or dual-task condition, either at the encoding or retrieval stage of the memory task. In Experiment 2, we examined the influence of processing conflicts in a concurrent RT task on memory encoding. Both experiments showed detrimental effects on recall accuracy and concurrent RT task performance in dual-task conditions at the encoding stage. Dual-task conditions at the retrieval stage led to a slowdown in recall latency and impaired concurrent RT task performance, but recall accuracy was maintained. In addition, we observed larger Stroop congruency effects in the dual-task conditions, indicating an increased processing conflict. However, in Experiment 2, we analyzed the effect of the processing conflict in a time-locked manner and could not find a significant influence on success of memory encoding. These findings suggest that processes in both tasks share the same limited capacity and are slowed down due to parallel processing, but we could not find evidence that this is further influenced by task-specific processing conflicts.

Semantic associations restore neural encoding mechanisms.

Lapses in attention can negatively impact later memory of an experience. Attention and encoding resources are thought to decline as more experiences are encountered in succession, accounting for the primacy effect in which memory is better for items encountered early compared to late in a study list. However, accessing prior knowledge during study can facilitate subsequent memory, suggesting a potential avenue to counteract this decline. Here, we investigated the extent to which semantic associations-shared meaning between experiences-can counteract declines in encoding resources. Our hypothesis is that semantic associations restore neural encoding mechanisms, which in turn improves memory. We recorded scalp electroencephalography (EEG) while male and female human participants performed a delayed free recall task. Half of the items from late in each study list were semantically associated with an item presented earlier in the list. We find that semantic associations improve memory specifically for late list items and selectively modulate the neural signals engaged during the study of late list items. Relative to other recalled items, late list items that are subsequently semantically clustered-recalled consecutively with their semantic associate-elicit increased high-frequency activity and decreased low-frequency activity, a hallmark of successful encoding. Our findings demonstrate that semantic associations restore neural encoding mechanisms and improve later memory. More broadly, these findings suggest that prior knowledge modulates the orientation of attention to influence encoding mechanisms.

Structure-Function Interactions in the Hippocampus and Prefrontal Cortex Are Associated with Episodic Memory in Healthy Aging.

Aging comes with declines in episodic memory. Memory decline is accompanied by structural and functional alterations within key brain regions, including the hippocampus and lateral prefrontal cortex, as well as their affiliated default and frontoparietal control networks. Most studies have examined how structural or functional differences relate to memory independently. Here we implemented a multimodal, multivariate approach to investigate how interactions between individual differences in structural integrity and functional connectivity relate to episodic memory performance in healthy aging. In a sample of younger (N = 111; mean age, 22.11 years) and older (N = 78; mean age, 67.29 years) adults, we analyzed structural MRI and multiecho resting-state fMRI data. Participants completed measures of list recall (free recall of words from a list), associative memory (cued recall of paired words), and source memory (cued recall of the trial type, or the sensory modality in which a word was presented). The findings revealed that greater structural integrity of the posterior hippocampus and middle frontal gyrus were linked with a pattern of increased within-network connectivity, which together were related to better associative and source memory in older adulthood. Critically, older adults displayed better memory performance in the context of decreased hippocampal volumes when structural differences were accompanied by functional reorganization. This functional reorganization was characterized by a pruning of connections between the hippocampus and the limbic and frontoparietal control networks. Our work provides insight into the neural mechanisms that underlie age-related compensation, revealing that the functional architecture associated with better memory performance in healthy aging is tied to the structural integrity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Effects of speech production training on memory across short and long delays in 5- and 6-year-olds: A pre-registered study

AbstractStudies on the role of speech production on learning have found a memory benefit from production labeled the “Production Effect.” While research with adults has generally shown a robust memory advantage for produced words, children show more mixed results, and the advantage is affected by age, cognitive, and linguistic factors. With adults, the Production Effect is not restricted to the immediate context but is also found after a delay. So far, no studies have investigated the effect of delayed recall on the Production Effect with children. Children aged 5 and 6 years old (n = 60) participated in two sessions. Children were trained on familiar words and images, which were heard (Listen) or produced aloud (Say). Children then performed a free recall task. One week later, children repeated the recall task and an additional recognition task. At immediate testing, there was a recency effect on words recalled from the different training conditions and a recall advantage for words produced over words heard; however, this no longer held after a 1-week delay in either the recall or recognition task. Exploratory analysis showed that vocabulary did not predict the Production Effect. Findings indicate that unlike adults, the Production Effect is not as robust in children after a delay.

The formation of episodic autobiographical memory is predicted by mental imagery, self-reference, and anticipated details.

Despite the ecological nature of episodic memory (EM) and the importance of consolidation in its functioning, studies tackling both subjects are still scarce. Therefore, the present study aims at establishing predictions of the future of newly encoded information in EM in an ecological paradigm. Participants recorded two personal events per day with a SenseCam portable camera, for 10 days, and characterized the events with different subjective scales (emotional valence and intensity, self-concept and self-relevance, perspective and anticipated details at a month, mental images…). They then performed a surprise free recall at 5 days and 1 month after encoding. Machine learning algorithms were used to predict the future of events (episodic or forgotten) in memory at 1 month. The best algorithm showed an accuracy of 78%, suggesting that such a prediction is reliably possible. Variables that best differentiated between episodic and forgotten memories at 1 month were mental imagery, self-reference, and prospection (anticipated details) at encoding and the first free recall. These results may establish the basis for the development of episodic autobiographical memory during daily experiences.

Is “memory-for-when” universal? Group and individual variability in temporal position memory for words, faces, and classrooms

ABSTRACT Many contemporary theories of memory assume that everyone automatically stores temporal contextual information about all types of encountered information, yet most studies on this topic have used words and ignored individual differences. Five experiments accumulated evidence that explicit storage of temporal context information does not appear to occur automatically for all people and types of memoranda. We collected judgments of temporal position (memory-for-when) for words (Experiments 1 & 3), faces (Experiments 2A, 3, 4, and 5), and classrooms (Experiments 2B & 3). At the group level, for each of these memoranda memory-for-when was sensitive to the original input position and showed a temporal primacy effect reflecting better memory for position for items near the beginning of the list, indicating some automatic storage of temporal context information. However, memory-for-when was significantly better for words than classrooms, with faces in the middle. Moreover, individuals varied dramatically in their ability to indicate memory-for-when, especially for classrooms where many people performed at or near chance. Taken together, the data suggest that explicit memory-for-when may be dissociable from the more implicit use of temporal contextual information that is theorised to occur during free recall.

Lower serum ferritin levels are associated with worse cognitive performance in aging

ObjectivesIron is important for neurogenesis, synaptic development, and neurotransmitter synthesis. Serum ferritin (SF) is a reliable marker for assessing iron stores. Therefore, we evaluated the cognitive function associated with SF levels. We also assessed brain iron content using R2* Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and its association with SF levels. DesignData from three cross-sectional observational studies were used. Aging Imageomics (n = 1030) was conducted on aged subjects. Health Imageomics (n = 971) and IR0NMET (n = 175) were conducted in middle-aged subjects. Setting and participantsParticipants were enrolled at Dr. Josep Trueta University Hospital facilities. The three cohorts included a total of 2176 subjects (mean age, 52 years; 48% men). MeasurementsSF levels were measured by standard laboratory methods. Total Digits Span (TDS), and Phonemic Verbal Fluency (PVF) were used to assess executive function. Language function was assessed by semantic verbal fluency (SVF), attention by the Symbol Digit Modalities Test, and memory by the Memory Binding Tests - Total Free Recall and Total Delayed Free Recall. MRI was used to assess the iron content of the brain by R2*. ResultsIn subjects aged 65 years or older, SF levels were associated with increased TDS (β = 0.003, p = 0.02), PVF (β = 0.004, p = 0.01), and SVF (β = 0.004, p = 0.002) scores. After stratification by sex, these findings were significant only in men, where SF was associated with increased TDS (β = 0.003, p = 0.01), PVF (β = 0.004, p = 0.03), and SVF (β = 0.004, p = 0.009) scores. In middle-aged subjects, SF was also associated with increased SVF scores (β = 0.005, p = 0.011). Lastly, in men, SF levels were negatively associated with R2*, a surrogate marker of brain iron content, in both the left frontal inferior opercular area (r = −0.41, p = 0.005) and the right frontal inferior opercular area (r = −0.44, p = 0.002). ConclusionsSF is significantly and positively associated with cognition. In older people with low SF levels, iron supplementation may be a promising therapy to improve cognition.

Frontal midline theta transcranial alternating current stimulation enhances early consolidation of episodic memory

Evidence implicating theta rhythms in declarative memory encoding and retrieval, together with the notion that both retrieval and consolidation involve memory reinstatement or replay, suggests that post-learning theta rhythm modulation can promote early consolidation of newly formed memories. Building on earlier work employing theta neurofeedback, we examined whether theta-frequency transcranial alternating stimulation (tACS) can engender effective consolidation of newly formed episodic memories, compared with beta frequency stimulation or sham control conditions. We compared midline frontal and posterior parietal theta stimulation montages and examined whether benefits to memory of theta upregulation are attributable to consolidation rather than to retrieval processes by using a washout period to eliminate tACS after-effects between stimulation and memory assessment. Four groups of participants viewed object pictures followed by a free recall test during three study-test cycles. They then engaged in tACS (frontal theta montage/parietal theta montage/frontal beta montage/sham) for a period of 20 min, followed by a 2-h break. Free recall assessments were conducted after the break, 24 h later, and 7 days later. Frontal midline theta-tACS induced significant off-line retrieval gains at all assessment time points relative to all other conditions. This indicates that theta upregulation provides optimal conditions for the consolidation of episodic memory, independent of mental-state strategies.

Semantic Clustering during Verbal Episodic Memory Encoding and Retrieval in Older Adults: One Cognitive Mechanism of Superaging.

Normal aging is commonly accompanied by a decline in cognitive abilities, including memory, yet some individuals maintain these abilities as they get older. We hypothesize that semantic clustering, as an effective strategy for improving performance on episodic recall tasks, may contribute to the maintenance of youthful memory in older adults. We investigated the dynamics of spontaneous production and utilization of the semantic clustering strategy in two independent samples of older adults who completed a list learning paradigm (N1 = 40 and N2 = 29, respectively). Specifically, we predicted and observed that older adults who spontaneously used a semantic clustering strategy throughout the encoding process learned more words by the culmination of the encoding trials (Sample 1, R2= 0.53, p < 0.001; Sample 2, R2= 0.51, p < 0.001), and that those who utilized this strategy during retrieval recalled more words, when compared to older adults who did not produce or utilize a semantic clustering strategy during both a short (Sample 1, R2 = 0.81, p < 0.001; Sample 2, R2 = 0.70, p < 0.001) and long delay retrieval (Sample 1, R2 = 0.83, p < 0.001; Sample 2, R2 = 0.77, p < 0.001). We further predicted and observed that older adults who maintained a youthful level of delayed free recall (i.e., "Superagers") produced (Sample 1, F(1, 38) = 17.81, p < 0.0001; Sample 2, F(1, 27) = 14.45, p < 0.0001) and utilized (Sample 1, F(1, 39) = 25.84, p < 0.0001; Sample 2, F(1, 27) = 12.97, p < 0.01) more semantic clustering than did older individuals with normal memory for their age. These results suggest one cognitive mechanism through which Superagers maintain youthful memory function and raise the possibility that older adults may be able to train themselves to use strategies to promote better memory.

Health literacy, but not memory, is associated with hippocampal connectivity in adults with low levels of formal education.

The influence of hippocampal connectivity on memory performance is well established in individuals with high educational attainment. However, the role of hippocampal connectivity in illiterate populations remains poorly understood. Thirty-five illiterate adults were administered a literacy assessment (Test of Functional Health Literacy in Adults [TOFHLA]), structural and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging, and an episodic memory test (Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test). Illiteracy was defined as a TOFHLA score < 53. We evaluated the correlation between hippocampal connectivity at rest and both free recall and literacy scores. Participants were mostly female (57.1%) and self-declared as being Black individuals (84.8%), with a median age of 50 years. The median TOFHLA literacy score was 28.0 [21.0; 42.5] out of 100 points and the median free recall score was 30.0 [26.2; 35] out of 48 points. The median gray matter volume of both the left and right hippocampi was 2.3 [2.1; 2.4] cm3. We observed a significant connectivity between both hippocampi and the precuneus and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. The right hippocampal connectivity positively correlated with the literacy scores (β=0.58, P=0.008). There was no significant association between episodic memory and hippocampal connectivity. Neither memory nor literacy scores correlated with hippocampal gray matter volume. Low literacy levels correlated with hippocampal connectivity in illiterate adults. The lack of association with memory scores might be associated with low brain reserve in this sample. A significant link was found between health literacy and hippocampal connectivity.Enhanced hippocampus- ventromedial prefrontal cortex connectivity suggests potential cognitive reserve improvement.Higher cognitive reserve may protect against hippocampal atrophy and neurodegeneration.Health literacy improvements could help prevent cognitive impairment in illiterate populations.Study highlights importance of considering structural racism in brain connectivity research.

Plasma p-tau181 as an outcome and predictor of multidomain intervention effects: a secondary analysis of a randomised, controlled, dementia prevention trial.

It is unknown whether multidomain interventions, which might preserve late-life cognition, affect Alzheimer's disease pathology. Previous studies measured cerebrospinal fluid and imaging Alzheimer's disease biomarkers in small subsamples of multidomain trial participants. Newly developed assays enable the measurement of blood-based Alzheimer's disease biomarkers in larger samples. We aimed to assess whether plasma tau phosphorylated at threonine 181 (p-tau181) was able to detect or predict 3-year multidomain intervention effects. This is a secondary analysis of the randomised, controlled, Multidomain Alzheimer Prevention Trial (MAPT) testing a 3-year multidomain intervention, omega-3 fatty acid supplementation, or both versus placebo, in individuals aged 70 years and older in 13 memory centres in France and Monaco. Plasma p-tau181 was measured in stored blood samples in a subsample of 527 participants on an intention-to-treat basis. Changes in cognitive score were calculated as a composite measure using the average of Z scores for the following tests: Mini Mental State Examination orientation items, Free and Cued Selective Reminding Test (sum of free and total recall scores), category fluency, and Digit Symbol Substitution Test. Intervention effects on 3-year change in p-tau181 concentration were estimated by use of a linear mixed model with centre-specific random intercepts. Recruitment took place between May 30, 2008, and Feb 24, 2011. Median baseline plasma p-tau181 was 8·8 pg/mL (IQR 6·7-11·9) in the total sample, and significantly higher in older individuals, men, APOE ε4 carriers, and participants with renal dysfunction or a positive PET amyloid scan. During 3-year follow-up, individuals with raised baseline p-tau181 underwent greater cognitive decline (eg, mean difference in 3-year change on the composite cognitive score between control group participants with normal and abnormal baseline levels of p-tau was -0·34 [effect size -0·52; 95% CI -0·61 to 0·07] in the fully adjusted model using a 12·4 pg/mL cutoff for abnormal baseline p-tau181), but there were no intervention effects on change in p-tau181 either in this subgroup or the total population, and no effect on cognitive change in individuals with raised baseline p-tau181 (eg, in the fully adjusted model using the 12·4 pg/mL cutoff for p-tau181 abnormality, the mean difference [95% CI] in this subgroup in 3-year decline on the composite cognitive score between the control group and the multidomain + omega-3 group, the omega-3 group, and the multidomain intervention group, was, respectively: 0·13 [-0·21 to 0·47], 0·03 [-0·30 to 0·36], and 0·10 [-0·26 to 0·46]). Surprisingly, individuals with raised baseline p-tau181 showed a decrease in p-tau181 during follow-up (eg, unadjusted mean [95% CI] 3-year change was -3·01 pg/mL (-4·45 to -1·56) in control group subjects with abnormal baseline p-tau181 [using the 12·4 pg/mL abnormal p-tau cutoff]). Our results support the utility of p-tau181 as a prognostic biomarker, but it did not predict or detect intervention effects in this study. Further investigation of its usefulness as a prevention trial outcome measure is required. Toulouse Gérontopôle, French Ministry of Health and Pierre Fabre Research Institute.

Normative data for the Spanish versions of the CVLT, WMS-Logical Memory, and RBMT from a sample of middle-aged and old participants.

Episodic memory (EM), one of the most commonly assessed cognitive domains in aging, is useful for identifying pathological processes such as mild cognitive impairment and dementia. However, EM tests must be culturally adapted, and the influence of sociodemographic variables analyzed, to provide cut-off points that enable correct diagnosis. The aim of this article is to report updated Spanish normative data for three EM tests: the California Verbal Learning Test, the Logical Memory subtest of the Wechsler Memory Test, and the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test. Measures include immediate, short-, and long-delay free recall, intrusions, and global scores. The entire sample is comprised of 1,193 cognitively unimpaired participants aged +50, recruited from three cohort studies within the Spanish Consortium for Ageing Normative Data. Participants who subsequently developed cognitive impairment, detected at follow-up, were removed from the total sample. Data analysis included transformation of percentile ranges into scalar scores, tests for the effects of education level, age, and sex on performance, and linear regression to calculate scalar adjustments. Tables with percentile ranges and scalar scores for each measure are provided, with adjustments for age, education level, and sex, as required. The normative scores provide robust data for assessing EM in Spanish middle-aged and old populations. Effects of sex, age, and education level in each measure are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

What do we manipulate when reminding people of (not) having control? In search of construct validity

The construct of personal control is crucial for understanding a variety of human behaviors. Perceived lack of control affects performance and psychological well-being in diverse contexts – educational, organizational, clinical, and social. Thus, it is important to know to what extent we can rely on the established experimental manipulations of (lack of) control. In this article, we examine the construct validity of recall-based manipulations of control (or lack thereof). Using existing datasets (Study 1a and 1b: N = 627 and N = 454, respectively) we performed content-based analyses of control experiences induced by two different procedures (free recall and positive events recall). The results indicate low comparability between high and low control conditions in terms of the emotionality of a recalled event, the domain and sphere of control, amongst other differences. In an experimental study that included three types of recall-based control manipulations (Study 2: N = 506), we found that the conditions differed not only in emotionality but also in a generalized sense of control. This suggests that different aspects of personal control can be activated, and other constructs evoked, depending on the experimental procedure. We discuss potential sources of variability between control manipulation procedures and propose improvements in practices when using experimental manipulations of sense of control and other psychological constructs.

Recall initiation instructions influence how space and time interact in memory.

Recent work has examined the interaction between space and time in memory search, but there is still limited understanding of this relationship. Here, we test the hypothesis that individuals can exert control over how time and space interact in response to subtle differences in task instructions. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed two experiments where participants completed two immediate free recall tasks, a verbal task involving words presented at a central location and a spatial task involving squares presented at different locations. Some participants were free to recall the words or locations spontaneously in any order they preferred. In contrast, another group was subtly biased toward temporal information by instructions to begin recall from the last presented item before recalling the remaining items in any order they wished. Replicating recent work, all conditions showed clear evidence that recall was organized along both the temporal and the spatial dimensions. Extending this work, we found that the subtle change in recall instructions increased the reliance on temporal information in the spatial recall task. Correlational analyses suggest that spatial and temporal information do not compete when participants search memory spontaneously. However, they do compete when instructions favor temporal information. These findings highlight that individuals can exert some cognitive control over how associative dimensions interact during memory search and emphasize the importance of incorporating such processes into theoretical models.

Kinematic observation reduces effect of aging on episodic memory performance

This study investigated the influence of kinematics observation (i.e., observing action from only the motion of the main joints of an actor) on episodic memory performance differences between young and older adults. To this end, 42 young (20–35 years) and 45 older (60–75 years) participants performed a free recall task in two different conditions: either after an encoding phase consisting of the visual presentation and reading of action verbs or after an encoding phase consisting of the visual presentation and naming of point-light displays of humans performing the same actions. Results showed a beneficial effect of point-light display encoding for both young and older participants but with a more pronounced benefit for the older participants compared to young adults. These findings are discussed in relation to the embodied view of memory which considers that memory is directly linked to the sensorimotor experiences and the environmental support hypothesis which postulates that elaborate processing can improve memory performance. In conclusion, kinematic observation could constitute an interesting potential intervention for supporting memory in older adults.

Drawing improves memory in patients with hippocampal damage.

The hippocampus plays a critical role in the formation of declarative memories, and hippocampal damage leads to significant impairments in new memory formation. Drawing can serve as a form of multi-modal encoding that improves declarative memory performance relative to other multimodal encoding strategies such as writing. We examined whether, and to what extent, patients with hippocampal damage could benefit from the mnemonic strategy of drawing. Three patients with focal hippocampal damage, and one patient with both hippocampal and cortical lesions, in addition to 22 age-, sex-, and education-matched controls, were shown a list of words one at a time during encoding and instructed to either draw a picture or repeatedly write each word for 40 s. Following a brief filled delay, free recall and recognition memory for words from both encoding trial types were assessed. Controls showed enhanced recall and recognition memory for words drawn versus those that were written, an effect that was even more pronounced in patients with focal hippocampal damage. By contrast, the patient with both hippocampal and cortical lesions showed no drawing-mediated boost in either recall or recognition memory. These findings demonstrate that drawing is an effective encoding strategy, likely accruing from the engagement of extra-hippocampal processes including the integration of cortical-based motor, visual, and semantic processing, enabling more elaborative encoding.

Judgments of Learning Reactivity on Item-Specific and Relational Processing.

Judgments of learning (JOLs) reactivity refers to the finding that the mere solicitation of JOLs modifies subsequent memory performance. One theoretical explanation is the item-specific processing hypothesis, which posits that item-level JOLs redound to the benefit of later memory performance because they enhance item-specific processing. The current study was designed to test this account. We factorially manipulated the organization (blocked vs. randomized) of categorized lists and JOL condition (item-JOLs, list-JOLs, no-JOLs) between participants, and fit the dual-retrieval model to free recall data to pinpoint the underlying memory processes that were affected by JOL solicitation. Our results showed that item-level JOLs produced positive reactivity for randomized but not for blocked categorized lists. Moreover, we found that the positive JOL reactivity for randomized categorized lists was tied to a familiarity judgment process that is associated with gist processing, rather than to item-specific recollective processes. Thus, our results pose a challenge to the item-specific processing explanation of JOL reactivity. We argue that JOL reactivity is not restricted to item-specific processing; instead, whether JOLs predominantly engage participants with item-specific or relational processing depends on the interaction between learning stimuli and JOLs.