Free Recall Test Research Articles

Examining the influence of list composition on the mnemonic benefit of errorful generation

ABSTRACT Despite literature showing that errorful generation with corrective feedback enhances retention better than mere studying, it is unclear if this benefit depends on the composition of the learning list (pure error generation/read versus mixed). Here, we investigated whether the mnemonic advantage and metamnemonic evaluation of errorful generation generalise beyond mixed-list designs. Experiment 1 used a free-recall test, while Experiments 2 and 3 used a cued-recall test, with Experiment 3 also including a judgment of learning (JOL) assessment. Only when memory was tested via free recall did the benefit of errorful generation depend on experimental design, with the effect being most robust in mixed lists. Replicating past research, we too found that despite a clear mnemonic benefit for error generation in cued-recall tests, participants predicted better memory following read-only trials, and that this effect was not contingent on list composition. At the practical level, these findings demonstrate instances in which errorful generation is beneficial for memory and learning. At the theoretical level, the results fit nicely within the item-order framework in accounting for commonly observed design effects in free recall.

Mixed in a World of Truth and Lies: List Composition Moderates the Effects of a Lie Fabrication Manipulation on Memory and Metamemory.

Research has shown that list composition moderates the effects of encoding manipulations on memory performance; differential memory performance is observed at distinct levels of the independent variable in mixed lists, but not in pure lists. The current study aims to investigate the effect of list composition on predicted and actual memory performance using a semantic lie fabrication manipulation. In Experiment 1, participants either told the truth or fabricated a lie in response to a set of general knowledge questions in a mixed-list design, made memory predictions for each response, and received a free recall test. Experiments 2A and 2B compared the effect of list composition by employing mixed and pure lists, respectively. The results showed that the lie fabrication led to a metacognitive illusion in mixed lists by inducing a crossed double dissociation between memory and metamemory. Participants produced higher memory performance and lower memory predictions for lies than the truth. In contrast, predicted and actual memory performance were similar for truth and lies in pure lists. These findings contribute to the existing body of knowledge on list composition and have implications for situations where individuals need to maintain and remember their fabricated lies.

The saving enhanced memory effect can be observed when only a subset of items are saved.

Saving one list of words, such as on a computer or by writing them down, can improve a person's ability to learn and remember a second list of words that are not saved. This phenomenon, known as the saving enhanced memory effect, is typically observed by comparing the recall of nonsaved items when other items are saved versus when they are not saved. In past research, the effect has been shown to occur when participants save an entire list before learning a new list. In the current research, we examined whether the effect can be observed when participants save a subset of items within a single list. The results of two experiments confirmed that partial saving can lead to a saving enhanced memory effect, with the effect observed regardless of whether participants saved items by clicking a button on the computer or writing them out by hand. The effect was observed on an item-specific cued-recall test (Experiment 1) as well as a free recall test that did not control the order of output (Experiment 2). However, the effect size did vary as a function of how participants attempted to recall the items on the final test. Specifically, participants who initiated their output by recalling nonsaved items exhibited a significantly larger saving enhanced memory effect than those who initiated their output by reproducing saved items. Together, these findings expand our understanding of the saving enhanced memory effect and shine new light on the impacts of cognitive offloading on human memory.

Age‐related advantage for recall of complex naturalistic information following cognitive offloading

AbstractPrevious work on cognitive offloading has found that young and older adults create and use external memory aids to boost performance on simple memory‐based tasks. To date, little work has investigated whether cognitive offloading can benefit performance when the memoranda are complex and naturalistic. In this study, 64 participants (32 young adults aged 18–26 years and 32 older adults aged 60+ years) studied facts about health conditions, then completed free recall and old‐new recognition tests under two conditions. In the cognitive offloading choice condition, participants could create notes during study to use on upcoming memory tests. In the internal memory condition, participants had to rely on internal memory alone. Both age groups benefited from using cognitive offloading. Notably, older adults outperformed young adults on the free recall test when given the opportunity to offload. These results suggest that cognitive offloading can help older adults overcome everyday memory challenges.

The effects of acute exercise on long-term episodic memory: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Research findings reveal a relationship between acute bouts of exercise and procedural/declarative memory. Prior systematic reviews report small/moderate effects of acute exercise on episodic long-term declarative memory. A somewhat overlooked issue is the influence of exercise on specific types of episodic memory processing. The primary focus of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of acute bouts of exercise prior to, during, and following encoding on free-, cued-recall, and recognition episodic memory. PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO databases were entered, and 42 experiments were subject to meta-analysis. Exercise prior to encoding improved memory (d = 0.23) and affected free-recall (d = 0.40) tests of memory more than cued-recall (d = 0.08) or recognition (d = −0.06) memory. Exercise following encoding improved memory (d = 0.33) and affected recognition (d = 0.62) memory more than free- (d = 0.19) or cued-recall (d = 0.14) memory. Exercise during encoding did not influence memory (d = −0.04). Moderator analyses revealed that exercise before encoding impacted memory differentially on the basis of age, exercise type, and test-timing. When exercise occurred after encoding, age and exercise type, but not timing of the test influenced memory performance. Exercise before and after encoding has selective effects on episodic memory. Additional experiments that evaluate how bouts of exercise influence memory encoding are warranted.Systematic review registrationPROSPERO, identifier CRD42020202784.

The drawing effect: Evidence for costs and benefits using pure and mixed lists.

Drawing a referent of a to-be-remembered word often results in better recognition and recall of this word relative to a control task in which the word is written, a pattern dubbed the drawing effect. Although this effect is not always found in pure lists, we report three experiments in which the drawing effect emerged in both pure- and mixed-lists on recognition and recall tests, though the effect was larger in mixed lists. Our experiments then compared drawing effects on memory between pure- and mixed-list contexts to determine whether the larger mixed-list drawing effect reflected a benefit to draw items, a cost to write items, or a combination. In delayed recognition and free-recall tests, a mixed-list benefit emerged for draw items in which memory for mixed-list draw items was greater than pure-list draw items. This mixed-list drawing benefit was accompanied by a mixed-list writing cost compared to pure-list write items, indicating that the mixed-list drawing effect does not operate cost-free. Our findings of a pure-list drawing effect are consistent with a memory strength account, however, the larger drawing effect in mixed lists suggest that participants may also deploy a distinctiveness heuristic to aid retrieval of drawn items.

Frontal midline theta transcranial alternating current stimulation enhances early consolidation of episodic memory

Evidence implicating theta rhythms in declarative memory encoding and retrieval, together with the notion that both retrieval and consolidation involve memory reinstatement or replay, suggests that post-learning theta rhythm modulation can promote early consolidation of newly formed memories. Building on earlier work employing theta neurofeedback, we examined whether theta-frequency transcranial alternating stimulation (tACS) can engender effective consolidation of newly formed episodic memories, compared with beta frequency stimulation or sham control conditions. We compared midline frontal and posterior parietal theta stimulation montages and examined whether benefits to memory of theta upregulation are attributable to consolidation rather than to retrieval processes by using a washout period to eliminate tACS after-effects between stimulation and memory assessment. Four groups of participants viewed object pictures followed by a free recall test during three study-test cycles. They then engaged in tACS (frontal theta montage/parietal theta montage/frontal beta montage/sham) for a period of 20 min, followed by a 2-h break. Free recall assessments were conducted after the break, 24 h later, and 7 days later. Frontal midline theta-tACS induced significant off-line retrieval gains at all assessment time points relative to all other conditions. This indicates that theta upregulation provides optimal conditions for the consolidation of episodic memory, independent of mental-state strategies.

Exploring the Production Effect in Memory Reveals a Balanced Bilingual Advantage.

There is evidence suggesting that bilingual individuals demonstrate an advantage over monolinguals in performing various tasks related to memory and executive functions. The characteristics of this bilingual advantage are not unanimously agreed upon in the literature, and some even doubt it exists. The heterogeneity of the bilingual population may explain this inconsistency. Hence, it is important to identify different subgroups of bilinguals and characterize their cognitive performance. The current study focuses on the production effect, a well-established memory phenomenon, in bilingual young adults differing in their English and Hebrew proficiency levels, and the possible balanced bilingual advantage. The aims of this study are (1) to evaluate the production effect in three groups of bilingual participants: English-dominant bilinguals, Hebrew-dominant bilinguals, and balanced bilinguals, and (2) to examine whether memory advantage depends on varying degrees of bilingualism. One hundred twenty-one bilingual young adults who speak English and Hebrew at different levels participated. All learned lists of familiar words, in English and Hebrew, half by reading aloud and half by silent reading, followed by free recall tests. As expected, a production effect (better memory for aloud words than for silent words) was found for all groups in both languages. Balanced bilinguals remembered more words than did dominant participants, demonstrating a memory advantage in both languages. These findings support the hypothesis that the presence of cognitive advantage in bilingualism depends on the acquisition of a good proficiency level in each of the languages, with direct implications for family language policy and bilingual education.

Clinical Validation and Correlates of the Cingulate Island Sign Visual Rating Scale for the Diagnosis of Dementia with Lewy Bodies

AbstractBackgroundThe cingulate island sign (CIS) is a metabolic pattern on [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose ([18F]FDG) positron emission tomography (PET) associated with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). The aim of this study was to validate the visual CIS rating scale (CISRs) for the diagnosis of DLB and to explore the clinical correlates.MethodThis single‐center, retrospective study included 166 consecutive patients with DLB and 161 patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The CIS on [18F]FDG‐PET scans was rated using the CISRs (0‐4) independently by three readers blinded to other patient data.ResultThe optimal cut‐off to differentiate DLB from AD was a CISRs score ≥ 1 (sensitivity = 66%, specificity = 84%) whereas a CISRs score ≥ 2 (sensitivity = 58%, specificity = 92%) was optimal to differentiate amyloid positive DLB (n = 43 (82.7%)) and AD. To identify DLB with abnormal (n = 53 (72.6%)) versus normal (n = 20 (27.4%)) dopamine transporter imaging (DaT), a CISRs cut‐off of 4 had a specificity of 95% for abnormal DaT. DLB patients with a CISRs score of 4 performed significantly better in tests of free verbal recall and picture based cued recall, but worse in test of processing speed compared with DLB with a CISRs score of 0.ConclusionThis study confirms the CISRs as a valid marker for the diagnosis of DLB with a high specificity and a lower, but acceptable, sensitivity. Concomitant AD pathology does not influence diagnostic accuracy of the CISRs. In DLB patients, presence of CIS is associated with relative preserved memory function and impaired processing speed.

Neuropsychological signs of the neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer’s disease at the stage of mild cognitive impairment

Currently, a huge number of works by domestic and foreign authors are devoted to the study of the neuropsychological heterogeneity of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) at the stage of mild cognitive impairment (MCI). The purpose of our study was to study the neuropsychological characteristics of AD at the stage of MCI depending on the timing of manifestation. The study involved 173 patients with asthma at the stage of MCI, of which 65 patients had early onset and 108 patients had late onset. All study participants underwent the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), the Free Recall Test with selective cues and immediate recall (FCSRT-IR), the route-following test (drawing paths): part A and B; categorical and phonemic verbal fluency, digit recall (DST). The average age of patients with early onset of asthma was 65.1±0.3 years, with late onset — 78.6±0.5 years. According to the results of the study, it was found that patients with a late form of asthma coped with MoCA worse than a patient with an early form (p=0.043). Patients with late onset AD produced fewer words independently in the FCSRT-IR test compared to patients with early onset (p<0.001). Analysis of DST test performance in forward (p=0.41) and reverse order (p=0.197) did not show significant differences. We found that patients with early AD made more errors (p=0.000) and took longer to complete the route-following test, both parts A and B. There was no significant difference when assessing categorical verbal fluency (p=0.67). At the same time, patients with early onset AD named fewer words when assessing phonemic verbal fluency (p=0.000). The results of our study indicate the need for comprehensive, extensive neuropsychological testing in patients with suspected AD.

96 Proof of Principle: Can Paragraph Recall Pauses and Speech Frequencies Correctly Classify Cognitively Compromised Older Adults?

Objective:Recent research has found that machine learning based analysis of patient speech can be used to classify Alzheimer’s Disease. We know of no studies, however, which systematically explore the value of pausing events in speech for detecting cognitive limitations. Using retrospectively acquired voice data from paragraph memory tests, we created two types of pause features: a) the number and duration of pauses, and b) frequency components in speech immediately following pausing. Multiple machine learning models were used to assess how these features could effectively discriminate individuals classified into two groups: Cognitively Compromised versus Cognitively Well.Participants and Methods:Participants (age> 65 years, n= 67) completed the Newcomer paragraph memory test and a neuropsychological protocol as part of a federally funded prospective IRB approved investigation at the University of Florida. Participant vocal recordings were acquired for the immediate and delay conditions of the test. Speaker diarization was performed on the immediate free recall test condition to separate voices of patients from examiners. Features extracted from both test conditions included a) 3 pause characteristics (total number of pauses, total pause duration, and length of the longest pause), and b) 20 Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC) pertaining to speech immediately (2.7 seconds) following pauses. These were combined with demographics (age, sex, race, education, and handedness) to create a total of 105 features that were used as inputs for multiple machine learning analytic models (random forest, logistic regression, naive Bayes, AdaBoost, Gradient Boost, and multi-layered perceptron). External neuropsychological metrics were used to initially classify Cognitively Compromised (i.e., < -1.0 standard deviation on > two of five test metrics: total immediate, delay, discrimination Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised (HVLT-R),Controlled Oral Word Association (COWA) test, category fluency ('animals')). Pearson Product Moment Correlations were used to assess the linear relationships between pauses and speech frequency categories and neuropsychological metrics.Results:Neuropsychology metric classification using -1SD cut-off identified 27% (18/67 participants) as Cognitively Compromised. The Cognitively Compromised group and the Cognitively Well group did not show any difference in distributions of individual pause/frequency features (Mann Whitney U-test, p> 0.11). A negative correlation was found between total duration of short pauses and HVLT total immediate free recall, while a positive correlation was found between MFCC-10 and HVLT total immediate free recall. The best classification model was AdaBoost Classifier which predicted the Cognitively Compromised label with 0.91 area under receiver operating curve, 0.81 accuracy, 0.43 sensitivity, 1.0 specificity, 1.0 precision, 0.6 f1 score.Conclusions:Pause characteristics and frequency profiles of speech immediately following pauses from a paragraph memory test accurately identified older adults with compromised cognition, as measured by verbal learning and verbal fluency metrics. Furthermore, individuals with reduced HVLT immediate free recall generated more pauses, while individuals who recalled more words had higher power in mid-frequency bands (10th MFCC). Future research needs to replicate how paragraph recall pause characteristics and frequency the profile of speech immediately following pauses potentially provides a low resource alternative to automatic speech recognition models for detecting cognitive impairments.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of dichotic deficits in individuals with learning disability

ABSTRACT Classic dichotic listening test using speech stimuli results in right ear advantage, due to the dominant crossed pathway for speech and language. However, such a conclusion cannot be derived for children with learning disability (LD) because of these variabilities among studies. Hence the study aimed at integrating the findings from various studies and synthesize evidence for the association between dichotic listening and hemispheric asymmetry in individuals with LD. All necessary key terms for ‘Learning disability’ and ‘dichotic listening’ were identified and used in combination with appropriate Booleans to obtain articles of interest. The initial search resulted in 3643 articles out of which 50 studies were selected for data extraction. The Right Ear Advantage (REA) is preserved in individuals with LD for the dichotic free recall test. However, in this condition, the right ear scores were significantly poor compared to controls. In the directed attention condition, the individuals with LD showed difficulty in right attended conditions whereas no deficit is observed in left attended conditions. Overall evidences indicated that individuals with LD showed poorer performance in both free and forced recall irrespective of dichotic material used indicating both top-down and bottom-up processing deficits.

Differential effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on explicit and implicit motor memory: The moderating effects of fitness level

A single bout of cardiovascular exercise (CE) performed after practice can facilitate the consolidation of motor memory. However, the effect is variable and may be modulated by different factors such as the motor task’s or participant’s characteristics and level of awareness during encoding (implicit vs explicit learning). This study examines the effects of acute CE on the consolidation of motor sequences learned explicitly and implicitly, exploring the potential moderating effect of fitness level and awareness. Fifty-six healthy adults (24.1 ± 3.3 years, 32 female) were recruited. After practicing with either the implicit or explicit variant of the Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), participants either performed a bout of 16 min of vigorous CE or rested for the same amount of time. Consolidation was quantified as the change in SRTT performance from the end of practice to a 24 h retention test. Fitness level (V̇O2peak) was determined through a graded exercise test. Awareness (implicit vs explicit learning) was operationalized using a free recall test conducted immediately after retention. Our primary analysis indicated that CE had no statistically significant effects on consolidation, regardless of the SRTT’s variant utilized during practice. However, an exploratory analysis, classifying participants based on the level of awareness gained during motor practice, showed that CE negatively influenced consolidation in unfit participants who explicitly acquired the motor sequence. Our findings indicate that fitness level and awareness in sequence acquisition can modulate the interaction between CE and motor memory consolidation. These factors should be taken into account when assessing the effects of CE on motor memory.

Incidentally encoded temporal associations produce priming in implicit memory.

A key assumption of some leading memory theories is that information about the relative order of events is automatically encoded whenever memories are formed and automatically retrieved whenever events are remembered. This information is often used to guide memory search: Remembering one event tends to trigger the retrieval of other events previously experienced nearby in time (temporal contiguity effect). The retrieved context framework attributes this temporal contiguity effect to automatic encoding and retrieval processes, predicting temporal contiguity even in incidental encoding and implicit retrieval. There is strong evidence of temporal contiguity following incidental encoding, but does the prediction hold for implicit retrieval? In this experiment, we tested the framework's predictions for recall and repetition priming. Across 30 trials, undergraduates ( ) read a series of words aloud as they appeared onscreen. In each trial, two words were repeated (cue and target), initially separated by |lag 1, 2, or 5. On their second presentation, the cue word was presented first, immediately followed by the target word. We found a strong temporal contiguity effect in a surprise free recall test, replicating previous work with explicit retrieval. For implicit retrieval, we compared repetition priming (how quickly subjects began reading a word on its first versus second presentation) for cue and target words. Repeating a cue word enhanced repetition priming for its associated target word, and this effect varied with the initial lag between the cue and target. These results support theories that assume temporal information is encoded and retrieved automatically.

Remembering what to do when the time comes: The effects of offloading in a complex prospective memory task.

Two experiments examined the effects of cognitive offloading on a complex prospective memory task. Participants underwent a simulated telehealth examination in which they learned about dry eye disease and its treatment. They were asked to email the experimenter at 7:00 p.m., 2 days later, at which point they attempted to recall the medical information about dry eye. Participants in the offload condition were instructed to set a reminder; participants in the internal condition were not. At 7:15 p.m., all participants received an email requesting them to complete the free-recall test, allowing for an assessment of memory performance even when participants failed to email the experimenter. Participants in the offload condition significantly outperformed participants in the internal condition, both in terms of emailing the experimenter on time and in terms of completing the second phase of the experiment at all. No differences were observed regarding performance on the memory test. Results related to rehearsals, metacognitive judgments, and conscientiousness are also reported. Overall, the study provides new insight into how reminders can affect performance on a complex prospective memory task and how reminders may have the potential to be used in medical contexts to optimize patient outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Read carefully, because this is important! How value-driven strategies impact sentence memory.

Little is understood about how people strategically process and remember important but complex information, such as sentences. In the current study, we asked whether people can effectively prioritize memory for sentences as a function of their relative importance (operationalized as a reward point value) and whether they do so, in part, by changing their sentence processing strategies when value information is available in advance. We adapted the value-directed remembering paradigm (Castel, Psychol Learn Motiv 48:225-270, 2007) for sentences that varied in constraint and predictability. Each sentence was associated with a high or low value for subsequent free recall (whole sentence) and recognition (sentence-final words) tests. Value information appeared after or before each sentence as a between-subject manipulation. Regardless of condition, we observed that high-value sentences were recalled more often than low-value sentences, showing that people can strategically prioritize their encoding of sentences. However, memory patterns differed depending on when value information was available. Recall for high-value sentences that ended unexpectedly (and therefore violated one's predictions) was reduced in the Before compared to the After condition. Before condition participants also showed a greater tendency to false alarm to lures (words that were the predicted - but not obtained - ending) from strongly constraining sentences. These observations suggest that when people try to prioritize sentence-level information that they know is valuable, the reading strategies they employ may paradoxically lead to worse memory.

False Memory Facilitation Through Semantic Overlap.

This study investigated the effects of semantic overlap from multiple sources on false memories. Participants were presented with paired study lists comprising items highly associated with one nonstudied critical item. There were three types of list pairs: (1) the sharing condition, in which the words in both lists were classified into different semantic groups that converged on the same critical word (semantic overlap), (2) the repetition condition, in which the two lists comprised identical words, and (3) the single condition, in which the paired lists were attributed to different semantic groups that did not share a critical item. In Experiment 1, participants were presented with the paired study lists and responded to free recall tests and a recognition test including remember-know judgments. In Experiment 2, the participants responded to a recognition test, and the participants in Experiment 3 recalled the studied items. The results indicated that the false recall and false recognition rates in the sharing condition were higher than those in the repetition and single conditions. These results suggest that activation from multiple independent sources may have an accumulative additive effect. The findings are discussed in relation to the Activation-Monitoring theory.

Evaluation of the usefulness of a paper–pencil group cognitive assessment for older adults in the community

BackgroundAs the older population increases, the need for early detection of cognitive decline is also increasing. In this study, we examined whether our paper–pencil type group examination for cognitive assessment (PAPLICA) could detect the effects of years of education and aging.MethodsPAPLICA was conducted on 829 older people. The inclusion criteria were age 60 years or older and the ability to come to the event site alone. The exclusion criteria were participants with a medical or psychiatric disorder or dementia.One examiner conducted the test on a group of approximately 10–20 people in approximately 25 min. Participants were instructed on tackling the issues projected on the projector, and their answers were recorded in a response booklet.ResultsAn independent sample t-test was performed for years of education, and ANCOVA was performed for aging. Among the test items included in PAPLICA, the Speed I and Letter fluency tests were unable to detect the effects of aging. Furthermore, the age at which the effect of aging manifests varies depending on the test item. For instance, a decline in scores in the Speed I and Picture ECR Free recall tests was observed in the 70–74 age group; for that of Word DRT, Picture ECR cued recall, and Similarity, in the 75–79 age group; for CFT, in the 80–84 age group, and for CLOX, the decline was observed in the 85 ≤ age group.ConclusionsPAPLICA, similar to other neuropsychological tests, was able to detect the effects of years of education and aging. Future testing should be conducted on different demographics to identify the differences in patterns of cognitive decline.

Does point value structure influence measures of memory selectivity?

ABSTRACT In reward-based learning and value-directed remembering, many different value structures for the to-be-remembered information have been used by researchers. I was interested in whether different scoring structures used in a value-directed remembering task impact measures of memory selectivity. Participants studied lists of words paired with point values and some lists included words paired with values ranging from 1 to 20, 1 to 10 (repeating twice), either a high value (10 points) or a low value (1 point), and either a high value (10 points), a medium value (5 points) or a low value (1 point). Results suggest that (1) in tests of free recall, if using a continuous value scale, the range of values matters in terms of selective memory, (2) analysing the selectivity index can yield different results than modelling item-level recall using point values (and the latter may be a preferable approach), (3) measures of selectivity using different value structures may lack construct validity when testing memory via recognition tests, and (4) the effect of value on memory is much larger on recall than recognition tests. Thus, I suggest that researchers carefully consider and justify the value structure used when examining selective memory for valuable information in list learning tasks.

Cognitive test performance in chronic cannabis flower users, concentrate users, and non-users

Extremely high-potency cannabis concentrates are becoming increasingly available and popular among consumers. While prior research indicates these products are perceived to have greater detrimental effects relative to cannabis flower, few studies have examined their relative objective effects, and no existing studies have compared the cognitive test performance of sober flower users, concentrate users, and non-users. A total of 198 healthy adults (98 non-users, 46 exclusive flower users, and 54 concentrate users) were administered a battery of tests of memory, psychomotor speed, attention, and executive functioning under sober laboratory-controlled conditions. Significant group differences were detected on tests of verbal free recall and episodic prospective memory, with both the flower users and concentrate users demonstrating significantly worse performance than non-users. Concentrate (but not flower) users performed worse than non-users on a measure of source memory, but contrary to our hypothesis, there were no significant differences between flower and concentrate users on any of the cognitive tests. Results indicate that, under sober conditions, individuals who regularly use concentrates are no more cognitively impacted than those who exclusively use flower. These null findings may reflect the tendency for concentrate users to self-titrate and use significantly lower quantities of concentrates than flower.