Free-ranging Conditions Research Articles

Ecological situation and congenital defects in Udmurtiya

A storage telemetry system has been developed to monitor domestic animals and wildlife, and has been tested under variable conditions on sheep, Przewalski horse and mouflon. It can be used for automatic recording of different patterns of behaviour, such as activity and feeding, and is based on advanced analysis of sensor-emitted signals. The system is made up of collars (ETHOREC) with sensors and electronic devices for behaviour recording, a central station (ETHOLINK) and software for data transmission and processing (ETHODAT). All components of the ETHOREC recording device are integrated in the collar. Long-time recording of behaviour through up to four different channels and in numerous animals at one and the same time are necessary elements to facilitate biorhythmic analysis of animals under free-ranging conditions. The results obtained from this telemetry system were compared with visual observations on six sheep and four Przewalski horses. Parallel recordings were taken from four sheep, using a recorder for jaw movements. Locomotor activity usually was rated somewhat higher by observers, whereas feed uptake was rated lower. Higher feed uptake values were measured by means of the jaw movement recorder, although deviations thus measured varied less than those noticed by visual observations. All measured series exhibited significant correlations with control values. The system, consequently, was found to be more suitable for determination of diurnal patterns, change over time and relative comparison between behaviour levels than it actually was for measurement of absolute duration of a given behaviour.

Methodologic and cosmogeophysical aspects of human reproduction

A storage telemetry system has been developed to monitor domestic animals and wildlife, and has been tested under variable conditions on sheep, Przewalski horse and mouflon. It can be used for automatic recording of different patterns of behaviour, such as activity and feeding, and is based on advanced analysis of sensor-emitted signals. The system is made up of collars (ETHOREC) with sensors and electronic devices for behaviour recording, a central station (ETHOLINK) and software for data transmission and processing (ETHODAT). All components of the ETHOREC recording device are integrated in the collar. Long-time recording of behaviour through up to four different channels and in numerous animals at one and the same time are necessary elements to facilitate biorhythmic analysis of animals under free-ranging conditions. The results obtained from this telemetry system were compared with visual observations on six sheep and four Przewalski horses. Parallel recordings were taken from four sheep, using a recorder for jaw movements. Locomotor activity usually was rated somewhat higher by observers, whereas feed uptake was rated lower. Higher feed uptake values were measured by means of the jaw movement recorder, although deviations thus measured varied less than those noticed by visual observations. All measured series exhibited significant correlations with control values. The system, consequently, was found to be more suitable for determination of diurnal patterns, change over time and relative comparison between behaviour levels than it actually was for measurement of absolute duration of a given behaviour.

Production comparisons between farrowing crates and community farrowing systems

The major welfare problems of farrowing accommodation concern piglet crushing, disease and weakness. The farrowing crate has been designed to prevent these piglet welfare problems. However, for the sow the restrictive nature of the farrowing crate may decrease her welfare. As studies of free-ranging pigs show, sows often choose to leave their young at intervals (Jensen et. al., 1991) and this is prevented in the conventional farrowing crate. The development of a less restrictive farrowing system might allow the sow to express behaviour similar to that seen in free-ranging conditions. The objective of this experiment was to compare the production performance of the farrowing crate with farrowing systems which allow the sow to leave her offspring.

The activity and straw directed behaviour of pigs offered foods with different crude protein content

Pigs are believed to posses a strong motivation to perform exploratory behaviour, which include a range of activities such as walking, orientation towards stimuli and direct investigation. Under free-ranging conditions these activities often occur in connection with foraging (Stolba and Wood-Gush, 1989). In ad libitum fed young growing pigs the provision of straw has been found to stimulate various behaviours involving direct investigation of the straw (e.g. Fraser et al., 1990; McKinnon et at., 1989). As it is assumed that growing pigs under such ad libitum conditions ingest sufficient nutrients, it is often assumed that the straw directed behaviour is unrelated to feeding motivation. However, individual pigs offered single diets may not be able to meet their nutritional requirements (Kyriazakis et al., 1990), and this may have behavioural consequences. For example, the straw directed behaviour observed in growing pigs may be a reflection of unfulfilled nutritional demands and in fact represent appetetive foraging. The aim of the present experiment was to assess the extent to which the exploratory activity of growing pigs is affected by limitations in nutrient intake (specifically the crude protein content of the food).

Effect of restricted grazing area on the normal behaviour of horses

Individual recognition in gregarious species is fundamental in order to avoid misdirected parental investment. In ungulates, two very different parental care strategies have been identified: ‘hider’ offspring usually lie concealed in vegetation whereas offspring of ‘follower’ species remain with their mothers while they forage. These two strategies have been suggested to impact on mother–offspring vocal recognition, with unidirectional recognition of the mother by offspring occurring in hiders and bidirectional recognition in followers. In domestic cattle, Bos taurus, a facultative hider species, vocal communication and recognition have not been studied in detail under free-ranging conditions, where cows and calves can graze freely and where hiding behaviour can occur. We hypothesized that, as a hider species, cattle under these circumstances would display unidirectional vocal recognition. To test this hypothesis, we conducted playback experiments using mother–offspring contact calls. We found that cows were more likely to respond, by moving their ears and/or looking, turning or walking towards the loudspeaker, to calls of their own calves than to calls from other calves. Similarly, calves responded more rapidly, and were more likely to move their ears and/or look, turn or walk towards the loudspeaker, and to call back and/or meet their mothers, in response to calls from their own mothers than to calls from other females. Contrary to our predictions, our results suggest that mother–offspring vocal individual recognition is bidirectional in cattle. Additionally, mothers of younger calves tended to respond more strongly to playbacks than mothers of older calves. Therefore, mother responses to calf vocalizations are at least partially influenced by calf age.

Bonding of Spanish kid goats to cattle and sheep

Spanish kid goats, white-face range lambs, and yearling beef heifers were used to study the effects of close interspecies confinement on bonding of the small ruminant species to each other or to cattle. Treatment groups consisted of (1) 3 Spanish kids, 3 heifers and 3 young lambs (43–53 days with no previous exposure to cattle); (2) 3 Spanish kids, 2 heifers and 3 older lambs (74–105 days with some previous exposure to cattle). Each of these treatments was replicated three times. During field testing, following 30 days pen confinement, the older lambs stayed closer ( P<0.05) to the heifers than did the younger lambs. However, no difference ( P>0.05) existed between young and old lambs following 60 days pen confinement. Spanish kids did not differ ( P>0.05) in the degree of bonding from lambs. After testing at 60-days, the groups originally confined together were re-combined and sorted into kid-heifer and lamb-heifer groups and tested at pasture for affinity of kid goats to heifers and lambs to heifers, independent of the other small ruminant species. Lambs separated from cattle during the 3-h test; whereas kid goats consistently stayed with cattle. In an extended field test, kid goats stayed with cattle over a 5-consecutive-day test with no observed separations. It was concluded that Spanish kids can bond to cattle and stay with them under free-ranging conditions. The data also suggest that with lambs, a bond may become stronger as the time of close association is extended beyond 30 days.

Sample size determinations for studying selected cattle foraging behaviors

Experimentation on livestock foraging behaviors under free-ranging conditions is frequently constrained by few experimental units (animals). Effective research designs require knowledge of expected sampling variability, but this information relative to range foraging behaviors is lacking. Sixteen 5-year-old range beef cows were used to estimate daily grazing time (DGT) and fecal output (percentage of body weight, FOBW) for 46 consecutive days during a winter grazing season. Estimates of components of variability associated with cows, days, and theoretical treatment effects were constructed from these data. Implied sample size requirements for a half-confidence-width ≤10% of the mean and a Type 1 significance level of 0.05 were 7 and 9 cows for DGT and FOBW, respectively, with day as a fixed effect. For day as a random effect, implied sample sizes were 5 days and 5 animals for DGT, and 5 days and 9 animals for FOBW. Variability among animals was greater when estimating FOBW than for DGT estimates. Detecting differences between two treatments sampled over 5 days with Type 1 and Type 2 probabilities of 0.05 and 0.10, respectively, implied sample sizes of five and > 20 cows for DGT and FOBW estimates, respectively. In general, these data indicated that <5 animals was insufficient and > 20 was excessive. These sample size estimates were obtained from a relatively uniform set of animals grazing a uniform quality and quantity of forage. Estimates of N would have been greater under more variable experimental conditions. Given constraints of statistics and the logistics of range nutrition experimentation, unless sample size requirements can be satisfied it may not be appropriate to examine certain questions with current experimental methodologies.

Diet selection of bonded and non-bonded free-ranging sheep and cattle

Compared with monospecies stocking, numerous studies substantiate that multispecies stocking can efficiently increase use within and among the mosaic pattern of rangeland plant life forms. However, multispecies stocking may fail to bring anticipitated biological and financial results because of severe small ruminant losses, often because of coyote ( Canis latrans) predation. Previously published data have demonstrated that when young lambs are bonded to cattle, they will follow cattle under free-ranging conditions. This close association under free-ranging conditions has been shown to reduce coyote predation on lambs. However, in addition to protection, lambs that stay with cattle may have their diet selection influenced. Differences between cattle and sheep diets were estimated using microhistological analysis of heifer and lamb feces. The data indicated differences between pastures, animal species, and bonded and non-bonded lamb diets. Lambs bonded to cattle grazed 7% more grass, 5% fewer forbs and 4% fewer shrubs between April and June than non-bonded lambs. Cattle diets were not influenced by either bonded or non-bonded lambs grazing in the same pasture and averaged 57% grass, 35% forbs and 8% shrubs. In contrast, bonded sheep diets averaged 35% grass, 59% forbs and 5% shrubs. The relatively large differences between heifer and lamb diets, and the relatively small differences between bonded and non-bonded lamb diets, do not negatively impact the potential benefits to be gained from multispecies stocking using bonded sheep. Managing bonded sheep with cattle under free-ranging conditions may result in more uniform spatial use of the vegetation than would occur if either species were managed alone.

Congenital Limb Malformations in the Free‐Ranging Macaques of Kowloon

This paper describes the instances of gross hand and limb malformations in the free-ranging macaques in the forested region of the Kowloon peninsula of Hong Kong. The incidence in this location is compared to that of other macaque groups, most notably the Japanese and rhesus macaques in free-ranging and captive conditions. Etiology is linked to what is known about suspected local teratogenic agents, particularly in pesticides and fuel emissions.

Species differences in response to conspecific intruders inCallithrix jacchus andSaguinus oedipus

In this study, the first performed on two species of callitrichid primates under identical conditions, the responses elicited in newly mated individuals by conspecific intruders were compared in four pairs of Callithrix jacchusand four pairs of Saguinus oedipus.Intruders were systematically varied in terms of sex and the social context in which they were met. Clear sexual dimorphism was observed in the behavior of Saguinus oedipus,but the behavior of males and females was less dimorphic in Callithrix jacchus.Males and females of both species showed an increase in agonistic and display behavior in the presence of same-sex intruders, but the mode of behavior varied both with sex and species. Social facilitation, as indicated by increased frequencies of agonistic and display responses in the presence of a mate, was observed only in males of both species. Neither C. jacchusnor S. oedipusdisplayed clear evidence of a monogamous mating system like that of Callicebusor of a polygynous mating system like that of Saimiri.Observed differences in the responses to conspecifics between these two species in the laboratory may be explained by facultative differences in mating systems resulting from differences in ranging and foraging behavior under freeranging conditions.

Response of bonded and non-bonded sheep to the approach of a trained border collie

Intra- and interspecific association of cattle and bonded or non-bonded sheep was observed under free-ranging conditions preceding, during and following the approach of a trained border collie dog. A bonded sheep is one which consistently stays in close proximity to cattle as a result of a continuous close association between the two species, which began when the sheep was a young lamb. The dog treatment provided insight into the response of livestock to an aggressive, threatening canine. Sheep bonded to cattle remained together as one interspecific group when threatened by the dog. Interspecific space decreased and the sheep positioned themselves among the cattle and away from the dog. Cattle aggression, i.e. kicking and charging the dog, was only observed when the dog approached the heifers. Non-bonded sheep and cattle reacted as two distinctly independent intraspecific groups. The non-bonded sheep reduced their intraspecific space and moved away from the cattle when threatened by the dog. The protection that bonded sheep receive from cattle appears to result from the close association with the cattle, which poses a threat to predators.

Wounding patterns in three species of captive macaques.

The incidence of wounding in captive groups of rhesus (Macaca mulatta), pigtail (M. nemestrina), and stumptail (M. arctoides) macaques was studied for 21 months. Groups were monitored daily for evidence of wounding. Wounded animals were captured, treated by veterinary staff, and returned following recovery. Records were kept on the age, sex, and species of the recipient, along with the type and location of wound. In each species of macaque, adult males incurred the highest frequency of wounds and multiple wounds of any age-sex class. This contrasted with previously reported behavioral data indicating low frequencies of aggression received by adult males, especially contact aggression and bites. These discrepancies indicate wounding frequencies do not necessarily correspond with behavioral measures of aggression. Inhibition of aggression directed toward infants and the selective avoidance of bites directed to vital body regions were presented as possible mechanisms that modify intragroup aggression. Increased wounding in the birth season under captive conditions suggests that the pattern of increased wounding reported during the breeding season under freeranging conditions may reflect xenophobic responses to immigrating males, rather than direct male-male competition for estrous females.

Heart rates in the captive, free-ranging beaver

1. 1. Heart rates of beaver ( Castor canadensis) under free-ranging captive conditions for active behaviors and resting in water (~ 121 beats/min) were significantly (P < 0.01) higher than for resting on land (100 beats/min). 2. 2. Although no transient recovery tachycardia was evident in swimming heart rates following diving, average swimming heart rates were higher (127 beats/min) after diving than after other precursor behaviors (123 beats/min). 3. 3. Beaver exhibited bradycardia when sleeping (75 beats/min), diving (61 beats/min), and when threatened on land (57 beats/min). 4. 4. The respiratory sinus arrythmia indicated a respiratory rate of 15 breaths/min. 5. 5. Cold temperatures (≈0°C) elicited higher heart rates than did warmer temperatures (≈20°C) in active, non-diving behaviors ( P < 0.05).

Thermoregulation, pelage conductance and renal function in the desert-adapted springbok, Antidorcas marsupialis

The springbok, a gazelle of the open, arid plains of southern Africa, can survive under hot conditions without access to free water. The pelage of the springbok (4·4 ± 1·2 mm) is thinner than predicted from its body mass and has a high conductance (6·7 W m −2 K −1 ), which increases rapidly with increasing wind speed. When prevented from thermoregulating behaviourally it either gains or loses heat rapidly, resulting in either thermal panting and sweating or a strong shivering response, even at moderate ambient temperatures. The unusually thin pelage is thought to be an adaptation to facilitate heat loss during and after sprinting in this remarkably swift antelope. Under natural free-ranging conditions the springbok maintains a fairly constant body temperature (37·5–41°C). It makes extensive use of orientation of the long axis of the body towards the solar beam, thereby reducing the profile area exposed to direct solar radiation and exploiting areas of the pelage, such as the white rump, with a high reflectance value (0·72). The kidney has a high relative medullary thickness (5·3) and the theoretical potential for concentrating urine is high (2,700–3,000 mosm kg −1 ).

Naturally Occurring Japanese Cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) Pollenosis in Japanese Monkeys (Macaca fuscata) Inhabiting Miyajima Island

Pollenosis is a IgE-mediated allergic disease which has the symptoms of snivel, sneezing, eye mucus, and/or tear resulting from mucous membrane inflammation of nostrils and/or eye. In Japan, Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) pollenosis is a typical one occurring in spring, and recently the number of its patients is remarkably increasing.We found the pollenosis in adult-female Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) inhabiting Miyajima Island under free-ranging conditions, who are derived from different female lineages one another. Their sera contained higher level of specific IgE antibody against Japanese cedar pollen than those of normal monkeys. The sera also induced a skin allergic reaction to the pollen upon Prausnitz-Kustner Test using normal healthy monkeys as a recipient. Thus, the current paper is the first report concerning naturally occurring pollenosis in wild non-human primates.

The behaviour of maintenance and the intensive husbandry of cattle, sheep and pigs

A major feature of our living environment consists of the domesticated animals. As their use intensifies so too does the obligation to them — and to their basic life practices — which we acquired at the moment of their domestication. Much of the behaviour of farm animals is concerned with self-maintenance, indeed, highly successful self-maintenance is the basis of animal productivity. Activities involved in such maintenance appear to fall into eight primary categories. These are basically of innate origin and include much instinctive behaviour. The use of these behaviours of reactivity, ingestion, exploration, movement, association, body care, territorialism and rest are vital to the animal in its integration and mediation with its environment. Within these eight primary systems of behaviour, numerous specific behaviours are exhibited in natural free-ranging conditions. Cattle exhibit 44 specific behaviours related to maintenance; sheep have 43 and pigs show 48. All of these above behaviours require environmental facility and where this is deficient, deficits occur in behaviour. Ethological deficits have been determined for methods of husbandry relating to the intensive production of calves, steers, sheep and pigs. Veal calves had 25 behavioural deficits, feedlot cattle had 11, housed sheep had 13 and enstalled swine had 26. These figures give indices of behavioural deprivation ranging from 25% in feedlot cattle to 56% in veal calves in stalls. Anomalous behaviour is now increasingly seen among animals which are managed under close confinement; restricted accommodation in an essentially featureles environment. Much of the anomalous behaviour which has been investigated is found to be the result of aversive environments. Anomalous behaviours are typically found in those forms of husbandry which involve intense grouping of animals and also a lack of what might be termed diversionary facilities in their environment. Reduced input of environmental stimulation and opportunity is evidently capable of acting with adverse effect on functional mediation, so as to generate anomalous forms of behaviour such as “orosthenia” — pathological oral activity. Such abnormal behaviour serves as a symptom of confinement stress. In animal production the application of ethology can provide a monitoring operation for livestock care to ensure welfare and ethological entitlement.

Heart rate values for beaver, mink and muskrat

1. 1. Implanted ECG transmitters were used to determine heart rates for several activities of beaver ( Casfor canadensis). mink ( Musteta vison). and muskrat ( Ondatra zibethicus) under free-ranging laboratory conditions within an aquatic tank. 2. 2. All three species exhibited bradycardia when diving but mink heart rates returned to pre-dive levels if the dive lasted > 30 sec. 3. 3. Heart rates for all other behaviours were significantly ( P < 0.05) higher than for diving and averaged about 120/min (beaver), 265/min (mink) and 240/min (muskrat). 4. 4. Mink heart rate values were higher than would be expected based on general energetic equations if we assume heart rate to be reflective of energy costs. This was considered to be a function of this species' fusiform body shape.

ALTERNATE SPECIES FOR NORTHERN ANIMAL PRODUCTION

Domestic animals, with the exception of the reindeer, are poorly adapted to foraging conditions in the Far North. Plant productivity is low at high latitudes, but native ungulates free to range over the irregularities of the terrain are able to obtain forage of high quality during the short summer growing season. Adaptations of native ungulates to survive the long winters when forage quality and availability are limited include growth plateaus during winter, accumulation of large fat reserves, reduced activity during winter, increased capability to digest plants not normally consumed by herbivores, and capability to forage through the snow cover. Attempts to domesticate the moose and muskox have to date been unsuccessful largely because these species appear poorly adapted to free-ranging conditions as are reindeer, and they therefore require closer handling, fencing, and provision of supplemental feed, with associated high costs of operation. No long-term practice of selective breeding of these species has accompanied the domestication efforts. Reindeer husbandry enjoys a renewed vigor in North America as a result of the recently developed raw antler market and changing motivations of native herders. The continued harvest of native wild ungulates for the sustenance needs of local people appears to be the most realistic use of most northern rangelands in the immediate future.

Mating seasonality in castrated male rhesus monkeys.

Department of Psychiatry, Emory University School of Medicine, and Georgia Mental Health Institute, Atlanta, Georgia 30306, U.S.A. (Received 23rd July 1974) Many species of non-human primates have relatively discrete breeding seasons. Under free-ranging conditions, rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) mate most frequently during November to January in North India (Prakash, 1962; Southwick, Beg & Siddiqi, 1965; Lindburg, 1971), during September to November on Cayo Santiago (Conaway & Koford, 1964; Loy, 1971) and during November to December at La Parguera in the Caribbean (Vandenbergh & Vessey, 1968). The mating season of rhesus monkeys in Australian zoos (Hartman, 1932) and on Ilha do Pinheiro, near Rio de Janeiro at latitude 22°S, is displaced by approximately 6 months, suggesting that the photoperiod provides a stimulus. Under free-ranging conditions on Cayo Santiago, males undergo testicular regression and are sexually inactive between February and May, at a time when females are pregnant or lactating (Conaway &

Behavior of free-ranging macaques after intraventricular 6-hydroxydopamine.

Macaques (Macaca mulatta) observed in a free-ranging colony on Guayacan Island, Puerto Rico, were significantly different in their social interactions, initiatives, facial expressions, and postures after intraventricular 6-hydroxydopamine compared with sham-treated and field controls. This study extends the known effects of 6-hydroxydopamine and catecholamine depletion to the social interactions of a higher primate species under free-ranging conditions.