Free Professions Research Articles

The emotional strain in community interpreting: Cognitive aspects of direct versus indirect address as observed by interpreters

Abstract In Poland, as in most countries, interpreting (similarly to translation) is a free profession (apart from sworn translation and interpreting rendered by certified translators and interpreters) which does not adhere to any particular prescriptive code or officially accepted regulations. Efforts have been made both internationally and domestically to introduce a set of universal principles or a professional working framework on commercial and scholar grounds (various codes of conduct drafted by organisations worldwide) to standardise techniques and approaches to interpreting with the aim of establishing a set of practices to ensure high quality interpreting. Regardless of the prescriptive nature of such codes or guidelines and the work of scholars, one of the matters that is of essence and still seems open for discussion is the choice of the grammatical person in which interpreters render and relay interpreted messages to their clients. This article presents a short description of what community interpreting is, its place within the interpreting domain, and it focuses on the aspect of direct/indirect address (using first or third grammatical person, respectively, while interpreting), its emotional and cognitive strain which the interpreters experience, and related lexical and grammatical choices they consequently make. The purpose of the article is the identification of possible reasons of such choices on the basis of feedback received from professionally active interpreters (both as full-time and part-time interpreters) in diverse settings: business, community, remote interpreting. The study reveals that the choice of grammatical person depends on many factors, such as cognitive and emotional strain, personal preference, context, client, and, in most cases, it is not dictated by any code of conduct.

Masa Jabatan Pimpinan Organisasi Profesi Advokat melalui Keputusan Mahkamah Konstitusi RI

The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia stipulates explicitly that Indonesia is a state based on law. In a constitutional state (rechtsaat) the state recognizes and protects the human rights of every individual. In a contstiutional state,everyone must be treated equally before the law (equality before the law). The principle of rule of law in the life of society and the state requires the role of an advocate as an independent and free profession. So that this freedom result in the absence of laws governing advocate. However, previously Article 38 of Law number 14 of 1970 had indicated the need to regulate the advocate profession in a separate law. After the law on advocate, namely Law No. 18 of 2003 does not yet clearly stipulate the term of office for the heads of advocate organizations. Therefore, the existence of a law that regulates the term of office for the leadershp of an advocate organization is very important in order to provide comfort and peace among fellow advocate professions.

Učiteljica Marija Milutinović Punktatorka - prva žena pravozastupnik u Srbiji

The paper shows the development of legal representation in the Principality of Serbia, with a special focus on the professional participation of women in court proceedings, shown through the character and work of Marija Milutinović Punktatorka, a teacher and the first female attorney in Serbia. In the judicial system of the Principality of Serbia, women were not prohibited from practicing law, which enabled an educated woman to pave the way for future women lawyers in the period of 'Little Serbia'. In the relevant literature, one can find rare texts in which the life and work of Marija Milutinović are mentioned casually and inconspicuously without an insight into the complete biography. By researching unpublished archival sources, significant information was obtained about the life and work of Marija Milutinović Punktatorka, the wife of the poet Sima Milutinović Sarajlija and the mother of the architect and professor of the Grande école, Dragutin (Dragiša) Milutinović. Marija Milutinović Punktatorka was born in 1809 into the Popović family in Timisoara. As the 'first Serbian' teacher, she educated girls and thus strove for women in the 19th century to fight for their place in the society. She was educated in Buda, where she also studied several sciences privately, with a 'very good approach and accuracy'. After the death of her husband, in October 1848, she opened a private elementary school in Belgrade. Soon, in 1849, she entered the civil service and started working as a teacher at the state school in Belgrade near the Great Church (Saborna crkva), where she received a pension in August 1874. Marija Milutinović's main motive to engage in legal representation stemmed from humane motives and not from material benefit. She practiced law even during her married life. She charged wealthier people, whom she successfully represented and won lawsuits in court with large compensation-modest, symbolic sums, more as a reward than as a fee (Ignjatović, 1860, p. 24). Even after her husband's death (1847), she continued to practice law and fulfil her husband's bequest, providing legal aid and representing the poor free of charge, which reflected badly on her impoverished family fund (Javor, 1862-1863; 1874-1893, p. 350). During the working life of Marija Milutinović, legal regulations did not prohibit women from practicing law, nor did the prohibition result indirectly. With the entry into force of the Law on Legal Representatives (1862), the previous decrees and orders, which often ad hoc solved the issue of providing legal aid in the Principality of Serbia. Officially, Marija Milutinović did not submit a request to be recognized as a lawyer before the competent authorities because she did not graduate from the Faculty of Law. In a formal sense, Marija Milutinović was never recognized by the Ministry as having the right to call herself a lawyer. Based on the real facts, it cannot be disputed that Marija Milutinović Punktatorka was the first woman in the Principality of Serbia to engage in a free profession, in this particular case, legal work.

Women's entrepreneurship and its role in promoting tourism industry in Algeria

The aim of this study is to highlight the role that women entrepreneurs can play in Algeria to develop the tourism industry by establishing institutions in areas that attract Algerian women , The results showed that women’s entrepreneurships more oriented towards the services, crafts and free professions sectors which are more compatible with the specificities and trends of Algerian women. Thus women’s entrepreneurship can be considered real lever for the development of tourism industry in Algeria. To women in Algeria and the tourism provided that they work to develop the entrepreneurial spirit of women through the dissemination of their tourism culture ; while lifting the bureaucratic and financial obstacles before them , and paying more attention

Current Issues of Improving the Legal Regulation of Medica l Practice, Medica l Activities and Medica l Self-Government in Ukraine

Problem setting. The foundations of Ukrainian legislation on health care, adopted by the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on November 19, 1992, laid the foundations of the legal mechanism for the functioning of the national medical system. Currently, the medical system is going through a complex process of transformation, and this requires new legislative decisions on the issues of medical practice, medical activity, and medical self-governance. Тarget of the research is to analyze the current legislation regulating medical practice and medical activity in Ukraine and to develop proposals for solving its current problems. Analysis of recent researches and publications. Ukrainian scientists studied various issues of the functioning of the medical system of Ukraine. Among recent studies, the collective monograph “The Unified Medical Space of Ukraine: Legal Dimension” of 2022 should be singled out [22]. This work examines various issues of the functioning of the medical system of Ukraine after the beginning of its reform in 2017. However, the problems of legal regulation of medical practice, medical activity and medical self-governance are not considered in the monograph P. Mazur, M. M. Tyshchuk [6], S. Ternova [7] dealt with issues of medical self-governance, but they did not connect the success of its implementation in Ukraine with the liberalization of legal regulation of medical practice and the status of a doctor. Article’s main body. Medical care is an integral part of the concept of medical practice. When defining the concept of medical care, the legislator unites all persons who directly provide it into a general group of medical workers, without dividing into professional groups (doctor, nurse / medical brother, etc.). As a result, the subjectivity of these persons is nullified, their status is not defined. The current legislation does not contain the concepts of medical activity, activity of medical nurses/medical brothers. On the other hand, in connection with the active work on the preparation of national legislation on self-governance in the field of health care, the question of the need to separate subjects involved in the provision of medical care is acutely emerging. After all, world experience shows that states develop self-government in accordance with the professional division of medical workers medical, nursing, pharmaceutical. Real effective medical self-government in Ukraine is impossible without giving doctors more freedom for their own professional realization. In the entire democratic world, a doctor is a representative of a free profession, has various options for his own professional realization, determines his own workload and level of income, can carry out activities on the basis of a professional license without additional formalities and attachment to workplaces. On the other hand, in Ukraine, the majority of doctors are salaried employees with state-regulated workload and wages. The conclusion is substantiated that the medical community can be prepared for the introduction of medical selfgovernment only in case of simplification of state regulation of medical practice and provision of economic freedom to the doctor, i.e. the opportunity to work not only as an employee or self-employed person (as today), but also on the basis of civil law contract (subcontract) or as a self-employed person. The legal mechanism for licensing medical practice is not an effective tool for monitoring the quality of medical care and bringing to justice entities that violate the requirements established by the state. The conclusion is substantiated that replacing the licensing of medical practice with the declaration of its proceedings should become a general rule of regulation of medical practice. Conclusions and prospects for the development. The transition to the declaration of medical practice, the increase of legal opportunities for the professional implementation of doctors, the introduction of medical self-government and the individual certificate for the right to practice medicine will be a powerful impetus for the development of the domestic medical system in the direction of European standards of medical practice and medical activity.

Prawna ochrona tytułu zawodowego

The study concerns the legal protection of professional titles, which are related to professional activities. It presents the genesis of such professional titles and their protection in Poland, which initially related to the protection of selected so-called ‘free legal professions’ (such as tax advisor, advocate, legal advisor, patent agent). The evolution of the subjective scope of how these professions occurred is also presented, including the introduction of this type of solution in relation to certain professions termed ‘free economic professions’ (chartered accountant, stockbroker and investment advisor), certain ‘free medical professions’ (nurse/nurse, midwife/midwife, laboratory diagnostician, physiotherapist, pharmacist), and selected socalled ‘free professions’, within which no professional self-governments functions (real estate appraiser). In this regard, it is noted that the legal protection of professional titles went beyond the scope of professional activity and also covered certain spheres of economic activity, an example of which are detective services provided by persons holding the professional title of detective. Against the background of the analysis of European standards, it is established here that the introduction of legal protection of professional titles should now be regarded as one of the means of regulating access to a profession. It is shown that the essence of the legal protection of the professional title comes down to the right of authorised persons to use the title on an exclusive basis, in order that other persons may not use the reserved title in this way, nor may their behaviour mislead the users of their services as to the fact that they hold a specific professional title, even if they have the appropriate knowledge and skills. There are various forms of legal protection – criminal, administrative and civil liability measures apply, but there are no comprehensive guarantees. A legally protected professional title can also be regarded as one of the determinants of the concept of a profession.

Environmental, occupational and lifestyle factors: An impact on male fertility

The crucial role of occupational, environmental and lifestyle factors are the means of life that can affect the health and welfare of human being, including fertility. Study is therefore designed to identify the roles that environmental, occupational and lifestyle factors play in determining reproductive status of middle age male partner. A cross-sectional study was carried out in 45 male cases (age 31-56) and 35 males controls age 16-30 years). Both study subjects and controls were taken from mountainous area. Detailed characteristics of both groups are noted. Levels of blood sugar, total testosterone, bioavailable testosterone (BAT) and its carrier were estimated by ELISA. Mean age of study subject was 43.6 and of control was 23.0 with normal BMI. Both groups living in mountainous area with profession of farming showed their active life style. Multi-parity is common. Both groups used bland diet and raw vegetables. Levels of fasting blood sugar, free testosterone and BAT were non-significantly low in study groups compared to these values of controls. However the values of total testosterone and its binding protein SHBG were non-significantly increased in study subjects in comparison to the values of controls. Study found good rate of fertility, because of pollution free environment, stress free profession and active life style. Increase age is not related with infertility. Impact of these factors is vital among the partners looking for conception.

Physicians and Society: On the Change in the Occupational Profile of Physicians in the Mid-19th Century, a Socio-Medical Concept by Salomon Neumann

The medical profession is not a trade, it is by its nature a free profession (Federal Doctors' Ordinance). The medical practice as an institution and the medical profession are, however, subject to current social conditions, currently particularly shaped by the rules of health economics and digitization. Salomon Neumann, who, along with Rudolf Virchow, is considered the founder of social medicine in Germany, published the vision of liberating academically trained doctors from the trade regulations applicable to craftsmen and other professions in 1847. On the basis of law and reason that applies to public action, he conceived the establishment of an association, a new professional representation of the previously isolated doctors in freedom, solidarity and self-administration. The failure of the bourgeois revolution in 1849 with subsequent social restoration delayed innovative developments. The professionalization of the medical profession begins with the formation of a unified medical status in 1852, the formation of medical associations in the 1860s, the establishment of the German Association of Physicians in 1872 as an umbrella organization and the establishment of state medical associations in 1948 as public corporations.

Domestic Violence Current Legal Status: Psychiatric Evaluation of Victims and Offenders.

Domestic Violence Current Legal Status: Psychiatric Evaluation of Victims and Offenders.

Соціально-демографічний портрет єврейської спільноти Маріуполя та Приазов’я дорадянського періоду (за даними перепису 1897 р.)

The article analyzes socio-demographic indicators obtained during the all-Russian population census in 1897, which characterize the socio-cultural aspects of the Jewish community of the Azov region and Mariupol. The share of the Jewish population in Mariupol was much larger than in the countryside. The urban population significantly prevailed over the rural population. Jewish and German agricultural colonies, as well as Ukrainian and Greek villages, were the centers of Jewish settlement in the countryside. The Jewish community of both the city and the countryside was predominantly young with a predominance of people of working and reproductive age. The identification of the Jewish community was determined by linguistic (Jewish language) and religious (Judaism) characteristics. The number of followers of Judaism was greater than the number of speakers of the Hebrew language due to the fact that some Jews communicated in other languages, mainly Russian. The share of Russian-speaking people in the city was higher than in the countryside, due to the greater number of Russification factors in the city. The social structure of the Jewish community of the city of Mariupol was determined by the total predominance of the bourgeois component with an insignificant presence of others, in particular, the peasantry and merchants. The rural area was characterized by the predominance of peasant and bourgeois classes. The structure of professional activity basically repeated the one that the Jews brought from the towns - craft and trade activity. In the countryside, a significant layer of agricultural activity was added, and in the city, a variety of free professions (journalists, lawyers, doctors, education workers) were spread.

Stosunek adwokackiej spółki partnerskiej do osób trzecich w zakresie odpowiedzialności partnerów za zobowiązania

A partner company is one of the types of partnerships. Its purpose is to exercise a free profession within it. In comparison with other partnerships, it is distinguished by specific rules of liability for the company’s obligations. Partners are not responsible for errors in the art of other partners. It is possible to extend this liability on the basis of a contract. An article to discuss this issue on the example of advocate partnership companies.

Dekonstrukcja wolnego zawodu w systemie totalitarnym na przykładzie regulacji prawnej wykonywania zawodu rzecznika patentowego w Polsce w okresie stalinowskim

In Poland before the Second World War, the profession of patent attorney was categorised as one of the so-called liberal professions. Its legal status and rules of practice were compared to the solicitor profession. A patent attorney practiced his profession personally, independently, and autonomously. In order to exercise his profession, he ran an independent patent attorney’s office. In the second half of the 1940s, with the communists taking power in Poland, a radical transformation of the social, political, economic, and legal system of the state along the lines of Stalin’s Soviet Union began. Any social, political, or economic activities characterised by independence and autonomy were thus in axiological contradiction with the ideology of the planned totalitarian state. The Act on the Establishment of the College of Patent Attorneys passed on 20 December 1949 completely abolished the structure of the patent attorney profession as a free profession, exercised in its own name and on its own account. From that moment on, the patent attorney became a civil servant performing their professional activities under strict hierarchical subordination to his superiors. There was no guarantee of their intellectual independence or professional autonomy. The practice of the patent attorney profession was subject to public law. The Patent Attorneys College was in fact another state office. It was organisationally and financially linked to the Patent Office — an administrative body granting legal protection to objects of industrial and commercial property, collecting and making available patent documentation and literature. The president of the Patent Office supervised the Patent Attorneys College. Both the Patent Attorneys College and the Patent Office were supervised by the State Economic Planning Commission. The State Commission for Economic Planning was a kind of super-ministry, tasked with a Soviet-style mission of closely supervising and controlling the entire centralised economy of the Polish state. The chairman of the State Economic Planning Commission also had key powers to influence patent attorneys. It was he who determined the subject of their professional examination, he who appointed a person meeting the statutory requirements to the position of a patent attorney. He could also exempt a candidate for the profession from meeting the requirements as well as appoint the president of the Patent Attorneys College. The Act of 20 December 1949 was repealed with the end of the Stalinist period in Poland. In 1958, the profession of patent attorney was briefly reinstated as a free profession. After that, until the end of the existence of the socialist state called the Polish People’s Republic, patent attorneys performed their profession as employees within the meaning of the labour law. It was not until the fall of communism in Poland that the profession of a patent attorney was re-established as a liberal profession under the provisions of the Act on Patent Attorneys of 9 January 1993.

Consensus in medical treatment in the French and Saudi laws: التراضي في العلاج الطبي في القانون الفرنسي والسعودي

Medical treatment is mutual consent between two parties, the doctor on the one hand, and the patient on the other, to conduct a therapeutic intervention, which is initially the main goal of this research. By adopting an analytical and descriptive methodology for legal texts, opinions of jurisprudence, and judicial jurisprudence, the physician is free, in principle, to select and contract with his patients. This is what the study aims to clarify. The physician has the right to consent to contracting with or rejecting a specific patient, regardless of the nature of the motive. A doctor, like other people, has complete freedom to practice his profession in the manner that he pleases. As he has the right to accept or reject the invitation for treatment, he is not obligated to answer the patient's request. A critical reading of these texts and a comprehensive look at the opinions reveal that the doctor's refusal of treatment could come as a result of professional reasons and/or personal reasons. Others add the cases of religious convictions and the inability resulting from his lack of specialization in treating the disease. However, considering the concept of social justice, the freedom to practice the medical profession is no longer an absolute freedom exercised in that traditional individual spirit that entitles those with free professions to practice it or refrain from practicing it as they please, which is what the researcher seeks to explain. Medicine in general is nothing but a social function in which the practitioner must seek the spirit of social solidarity. As a result of these social views, the physician must commit to performing them according to the best interests of society. The doctor is not entitled to refrain from helping or answering the call of a patient. On the other hand, the study aims to clarify that medical treatment requires the patient's consent as well. It was found that there was a difference of jurisprudence regarding this, but it does not prevent the doctor from making obligations towards the patient. While some jurists believe that the doctor or surgeon has the right to impose a medical decision whose necessity he assesses in the light of his conscience and experience, even against the will of the patient, others maintain that he cannot treat the patient without taking his free and enlightened consent. Still others see that the patient must be satisfied specifically in certain cases. In this sense, the doctor is allowed to tell white or open lies. The study concluded that the doctor must, at all stages, show the patient the feasibility of the required treatment and surgery and the extent of their success before each medical or surgical intervention. The result of the recognition of the patient’s right to maintain his physical sanctity must also work on the principle of the doctor’s obligation to provide the patient with this information and inquiries until the patient’s satisfaction comes enlightened or insightful despite the emergence of realistic problems related to obtaining the patient’s satisfaction The study generally recommends: 1- Enacting new laws that override the jurisprudential differences over consent, define its cases and arrange responsibility for it. 2- Assigning a substitute to the doctor to enlighten the patient and search for his consent in specific cases 3- Appraising the creative role of jurisprudence in the article of medical contracting and resolving the related problems.

Temporary migration of Palestinian students to the former USSR: motivations, conflicts and impact

ABSTRACT The article traces Palestinian Arab graduates in Israel, who acquired HE in the former USSR. The article clarifies the unique contribution of these studies to social, economic and political aspects of Palestinian Arab society in Israel. Qualitative methodology was employed, eliciting data from semi-structured interviews with 20 Palestinian Arab graduates, selected by ‘snowball’ method to represent two generations of students that migrated temporarily to the USSR for their studies. The findings indicate that the financial factor was a decisive motivator to study in the former USSR.As active communist party members, they received full scholarships for USSR universities. A ‘push’ factor was that the difficulty involved in gaining acceptance for prestigious disciplines in Israeli universities, free professions desiredby Palestinian students from Israel to free them from reliance on Israeli establishment employment. On graduation, the students returned to Israel, where they underwent a re-integration into a traditional Arab society that had hardly altered since they left. It is concluded that the former USSR supported and reinforced the economic, social and political fabric of Palestinian Arab society in Israel, training skilled academics and professionals who provide essential services and support for their society.

Zakłady (dépôts) dla emigrantów polskich w Châteauroux i departamencie Indre w latach 1831–1833

Refugee depots for Polish emigrants in Châteauroux and Indre department in the years 1831–1833 In the article the author presents the setting up and operation of refugee depots (Fr. dépôts) in the Indre department for Polish emigrants who arrived in France after the fall of the November Uprising. The refugee depot in Châteauroux was one of the several depots founded by the French government. It was intended for civil exiles. The other camps for military refugees were set up in Avignon, Lunel, Besançon, Bourges, Lons-le-Saunier, Salins and Dijon. From the beginning of August 1832 till August 1833, the French authorities directed civilians to cities of Indre: Châteauroux – the capital of the department, as well as Issoudun, Levroux, La Chatre, Argenton, Buzançais, Chatillon, Saint Benoit, and La Blanc. The author establishes that in that period of time, 634 Polish refugees went through the camps of the Indre department. Most of them were students (from the Vilnius University), young officials and members of free professions. They came from the pre-partition areas of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Lithuania, Volhynia and Podolia). Despite the restrictive policy of the administration and the fact that they stayed in the French province, the Poles engaged in the social and political life of emigration. They participated actively in democratic and educational organizations of the Great Emigration. In many cases, by their own determination, they went to study and obtained aducation at French universities and technical universities. The article is based on sources from the Indre Department Archives in Châteauroux, archives of the Defense Historical Service in Vincennes, the National Archives in Paris, the Polish Library in Paris, the Princes Czartoryski Library in Krakow, and academic studies.

LEGAL REGULATION OF ACTIVITY OF SELF-EMPLOYED CITIZENS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

This paper is devoted to the analysis of legal regulation issues concerning self-employed citizens in the Russian Federation as part of an experiment in certain regions of Russia on the legalization of self-employed people’s activities. The way out of the shadow of the self-employed people is one of the most discussed issues not only in Russia, but also in many countries of the world. The unwillingness to officially register their activities is explained, first of all, by the fact that the payment of taxes, as a rule, is incommensurable with the income of the self-employed people. At the same time, without registering their business, self-employed citizens are left without their social protection from the state, and without the opportunity to receive development loans, etc. The state should encourage self-employment people, as it contributes to solving the problem of unemployment. In the EU and the USA, the self-employed population provides business, social, real estate, intermediary services, as well as provides counselling, advertising, retail, franchising and other activities (over 400 types of activities). At the same time, a self-employed citizen can provide paid services to various organizations on a certain range of issues, demonstrating their professional qualities, either with the prospect of possible employment in these organizations as a specialist, consultant or contractor, or remaining a specialist in a free profession [1]. For most countries, the issue of how to legitimize the activities of the self-employment people is relevant, so that on the one hand, the budget is replenished, and on the other, social guarantees are established [2]. In the course of the study of the stated problems, the authors come to the conclusion that today the Russian Federation needs to build a social security system for self-employed citizens. At the same time, the tax on professional income should remain unchanged.

KEDUDUKAN ORGANISASI ADVOKAT SEBAGAI WADAH TUNGGAL PROFESI PASCA PUTUSAN MAHKAMAH KONSTITUSI

Advocate is a free and independent profession. According to the Constitutional Court Decision number 112/PUU–XII/2014 & 36/PUU–XIII/2015. It is interesting that the decision has decided the issue of oath in Article 4 Paragraph (1) Advocate Law, but affects Article 28 Paragraph (1) concerning Advocates Organization. This research is a normative research that uses conceptual approach and legislative approach, which hopefully can dig up and find out the position of Advo- cates Organizations after the Constitutional Court Decision number 112/PUU–XII/2014 & 36/PUU– XIII/2015. It is known from the research that the Constitutional Court is unauthorized to decide which organization is legitimate, although Advocates Organization can also be named as state institution.

Personal Laws and the Constitution: Revisiting Narasu Appa Mali

The Constitution of India Guarantees to its citizen the Freedom of Conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion, the freedom to manage its religious affairs under Part III i.e The Fundamental Rights chapter of the Indian Constitution. The same part III of the constitution also guarantees to its citizens the right to equality before the law or equal protection of the laws, the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, caste, sex etc, the right to liberty which includes within itself the right to live with dignity and let alone to mention that even article 25 which grants the freedom of religion is also subjected to the other fundamental rights and thus is not absolute. The question which arises is how then some of personal laws being patriarchal, and on face discriminatory against the women like which moves against the fundamental rights can still exist and manage the scrutiny of fundamental rights? In this paper after establishing the current position of law, I have tried to examine and scrutinize the legal reasoning and rational behind the Bombay High Court decision in State of Bombay v. Narasu Appa Mali where the court held that the personal laws are outside the ambit of judicial scrutiny under article 13 and because of which even today, after 65 years of developed constitutional jurisprudence, some of the discriminatory personal laws continues to be in practice.

Polskie i europejskie standardy wykonywania wolnych zawodów

For some time Poland has been debating the issue of the existence and functioning of professional corporations. This debate concerns only those professions that are deemed professions of public trust and which have been granted the privilege of developing their respective professional self-governing bodies. European solutions for regulating the issue of such professions are varied and have attracted the attention of the European Union. Contemplating the evolution of the Polish political system in the field of self-governing bodies it is worth paying attention to the European standards regulating the functioning of free professions, which include what are considered professions of public trust in Poland. The said regulations set certain standards for the Polish regulator to be followed and implemented.

Soviet Constructivism as Social-reforming Way for a Life Reconstructing By Architectural Methods: The Reasons for the Forbidding

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