Free Play Activities Research Articles

Preschoolers’ Physical Activity Participation Across a Yearlong Mastery-Motivational Climate Intervention

ABSTRACTPurpose: This study sought to determine how children’s participation in physical activity during a mastery-motivational climate changed during a 20-week intervention and to compare it to children’s free-play activity during a typical day at their local day-care facility. Method: Twelve 4-year-old children participated in a mastery-motivational climate physical activity program delivered 2 days a week for 20 weeks during a period of 8 months. All children were fitted with an Actigraph GT3X triaxial accelerometer. Data from the accelerometers were reduced to determine minutes of sedentary time, light physical activity, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during (a) all 20 weeks, and (b) Weeks 1 through 4, Weeks 9 through 12, and Weeks 17 to 20 for the mastery climate. Activity levels in the mastery condition were compared to the children’s activity during unplanned free play in Weeks 1, 10, and 20. Results: During the course of the mastery-motivational climate program, participation in sedentary behavior decreased statistically significantly, while participation in MVPA increased statistically significantly. Within the free-play condition, there were no changes in the levels of activity across time, with the children spending on average more than 80% of their time being sedentary. Conclusions: Findings indicate that when specific task structures associated with a mastery climate are included in an instructional setting, these climate manipulations seem to have a direct effect on physical activity levels once the children learned how to manage themselves in the setting. Free-play activity in and of itself does not appear to stimulate MVPA.

Testing of a Novel Direct Observation Method for Children’s Free Play Activity

PURPOSE: Direct Observation (DO) has been used as a criterion measure of children’s physical activity (PA) since the early 1990’s. A limitation of these DO systems include researchers instantaneously recording only the highest activity level performed in a given time interval. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to compare the estimates of time spent in activity intensity categories using a novel video recorded DO methodology, compared to accelerometer data. METHODS: Children ages 6-10 years old participated in a simulated free play session. Toys, equipment, and a sibling or friend were available to facilitate a full range of activity intensities; sedentary (SED), light (LPA), moderate (MPA), and vigorous (VPA) for 30 minutes. Participants wore an ActiGraph GT3X+ (AG) over their right hip (AG-H) and non-dominant wrist (AG-W). The sessions were recorded with a GoPro™ video camera and, using Noldus™ behavioral observation software, an activity intensity category was assigned each time the child changed their activity. Two observers independently coded every 30-minute session. The percent of time spent in each PA category (calculated from the Noldus software) was compared between AG and DO using Spearman-Rank Correlations and Wilcoxon Rank-Sum Tests. RESULTS: Twelve children completed this study (8.9±1.2 yrs; 33% female). DO and AG-H were moderately correlated for all intensity categories (r=0.32 to 0.7), except for MPA (r=0.15). Mean values of percent of time spent in activity intensity categories were similar between DO and AG-H (p=0.11 to 0.83), except for MPA (DO 12%+5%, AG-H 18%+8%, p=0.02). DO and AG-W showed weak or negative associates for all intensity categories (r=-0.6 to 0.09). The AG-W underestimated percent of time spent in SED, LPA, and MPA (p<0.001 for all) but overestimated VPA (DO 13%±5%, AG-W 81%±10%, p=0.0001), compared to DO. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these results, the novel DO system tested here is promising but needs to be further refined to better distinguish moderate intensity activities from light or vigorous movement. Caution is warranted when interpreting wrist accelerometer data from free-living children.

Implications of Social Groups on Sedentary Behavior of Children with Autism: A Pilot Study.

This pilot study compared sedentary behavior (SB) of children with autism (ASD) to typically developing peers (TD), and evaluated the influence of social contexts within free play (FP) and organized activity settings on SB of children with ASD during an inclusive summer camp. Participants with ASD were matched with TD peers by age and gender, and a modified OSRAC-P was utilized to assess SB and social context by setting. SB did not differ by diagnosis (ASD, TD), setting, or social contexts. In FP, children with ASD spent significantly more time in SB within social contexts compared to solitary contexts. ASD-related social deficits may facilitate SB in children with ASD during summer camp FP social contexts, compared to a solitary context.

An exploratory study of children’s pretend play when using a switch-controlled assistive robot to manipulate toys

Introduction Assistive robots could be a means for children with physical disabilities to manipulate toys and for occupational therapists to track children’s play development. This study aimed to (a) establish if free play set-ups without and with a robot would elicit a developmental sequence of play in typically developing children, (b) determine if the robot affected children’s play and (c) observe the play schemes that children performed. Method An experimental crossover design was conducted. Thirty typically developing children between the ages of 3 and 8 years old performed free play activities with conventional toys or unstructured materials without and with a switch-controlled Lego Mindstorms robot. Children’s pretend and functional play was analyzed using a coding scheme developed for the present study. Results There was a trend, increasing with age, for pretend play without the robot with unstructured materials ( p = .002), and with the robot, for conventional toys ( p = 0.015) and unstructured materials ( p = 0.027). Younger children exhibited more pretend play without the robot than with it. Conclusion Assistive robots and appropriate play set-ups can provide a method to measure the play development level of children with disabilities, and support pretend play. Suggestions to support pretend play when children with disabilities use assistive robots are discussed.

Humour and self-concept: a multicultural perspective

Humour and play have many features in common, both of which are important aspects in children's lives. In this article the focus is set on the relationship between different aspects of children's self-concept, including their humoristic self-concept, and interest in learning, play and local cultural activities. Participants in this study were drawn nonrandomly from primary schools in Australia, Norway and the United States. The students in the sample were 8 to 11 years old and were recruited from the majority culture and from Indigenous groups in the three countries. Results show interesting relationships between the humour self-concept and gender. More boys than girls describe themselves as funny. In the majority cultures humoristic self concept seems to be related to interest in free play, free learning and free local cultural activities. Within the Indigenous groups these relations were not significant. There are reasons to consider most of the documented differences to be caused by dissimilarities between cultures, school systems, and how representatives of different cultural groups perceive and think about upbringing and education. In particular, the gender differences found call for further research.

Physical education in early education: An intervention program for reducing aggressive and social insecure behavior

The present study aimed to examine the effect of a physical education program on the reduction of aggressive and social insecure behavior of young children. The sample comprised of 194 children, aged 4-5 years. The experimental group consisted of 99 children, while the rest 95 children formed the control group. The experimental group participated in an 8-week physical education program, based on physical activities and kinetic theatrical playing, while the control group was engaged in free-play activities during the same period. All participants completed the Checklist of Aggressive Behavior (CAB) (Petermann & Petermann, 2001) and the Checklist of Social Insecure Behavior (CSIB) (Petermann & Petermann, 2003). The results revealed that the experimental group exhibited statistically lower aggressive and social insecure behaviors after the intervention compared to the control group. These findings indicate that an appropriate design of physical education could support social development in early childhood.

Older Sibling Support of Younger Siblings’ Socio-Emotional Development

Siblings play a critical role in the socialization experiences of their younger siblings. Societal values, standards, and customs are transmitted and created through the process of modeling and the construction of shared meaning. It follows, therefore, that the process of socialization may be culturally dependent. Using multiple case studies of five sibling dyads, we aim to examine the process of initiation and co-construction of second-generation Spanish-speaking children while engaged in free play activities. Examination of fieldnotes, videotapes, and transcriptions suggests that younger siblings initiated more interactions than their older siblings. However, older sibling initiations were more likely to lead to co-construction. Moreover, when younger sibling initiations were successful, this process of co-construction appears to be contingent on the support provided by their more skilled older siblings. We suggest that by serving as models, older siblings are fulfilling their familial responsibility and preparing their younger siblings for school-based social interactions.

Sensory and repetitive behaviors among children with autism spectrum disorder at home.

Atypical sensory and repetitive behaviors are defining features of autism spectrum disorder and are thought to be influenced by environmental factors; however, there is a lack of naturalistic research exploring contexts surrounding these behaviors. This study involved video recording observations of 32 children with autism spectrum disorder (2-12 years of age) engaging in sensory and repetitive behaviors during home activities. Behavioral coding was used to determine what activity contexts, sensory modalities, and stimulus characteristics were associated with specific behavior types: hyperresponsive, hyporesponsive, sensory seeking, and repetitive/stereotypic. Results indicated that hyperresponsive behaviors were most associated with activities of daily living and family-initiated stimuli, whereas sensory seeking behaviors were associated with free play activities and child-initiated stimuli. Behaviors associated with multiple sensory modalities simultaneously were common, emphasizing the multi-sensory nature of children's behaviors in natural contexts. Implications for future research more explicitly considering context are discussed.

Energy Cost of Free-Play Activities in 10- to 11-Year-Old Children.

This study sought to ascertain the energy expenditure (EE) associated with different sedentary and physically active free-play activities in primary school-aged children. Twenty-eight children (13 boys; 11.4 ± 0.3 years; 1.45 ± 0.09 m; 20.0 ± 4.7 kg∙m-2) from 1 primary school in Northwest England engaged in 6 activities representative of children's play for 10 minutes (drawing, watching a DVD, playground games and free-choice) and 5 minutes (self-paced walking and jogging), with 5 minutes rest between each activity. Gas exchange variables were measured throughout. Resting energy expenditure was measured during 15 minutes of supine rest. Child (Schofield-predicted) MET values for watching a DVD, self-paced jogging and playing reaction ball were significantly higher for girls (P < .05). Utilizing a field-based protocol to examine children's free-living behaviors, these data contribute to the scarcity of information concerning children's EE during play to update the Compendium of Energy Expenditures for Youth.

Teaching to the data collection? (Un)intended consequences of online child assessment system, “Teaching Strategies GOLD”

Drawing on a qualitative case study of four Head Start sites, this article analyzes a number of governing patterns that have emerged and grown in the field of early childhood education and care in the United States. This article specifically highlights a government’s enhanced oversight and management of Head Start programs by mandating a school readiness data system in their local programs: establishing a set of measurable school readiness goals, and collecting and analyzing ongoing child assessment data to monitor children’s progress in meeting these goals. The primary focus of this article is to illustrate the experience of Head Start teachers and children with a commercial online child assessment and record keeping system called the “Teaching Strategies Gold.” Research findings of this article suggest that seemingly “authentic, ongoing observational system,” Teaching Strategies Gold actually extends and intensifies the techniques and effects of power operating on both children and teachers on a more minute and everyday level. It (re)shapes the conditions of work and constructs new norms for teachers themselves as “ongoing” assessors/observers. Pressure to “collect” all the required observational evidence that would also determine children’s progress toward the next higher level has dramatically changed the nature of free play and small group activities into more “functional,” “hierarchical,” and “analytical” space.

Effects of academic and non-academic instructional approaches on preschool English language learners’ classroom engagement and English language development

This research compared the relative impact of different preschool activities on the development of bilingual students’ English-language skills. The study investigated whether bilingual preschool children would engage more, and use more of their second language (English), during free-play (non-academic) versus teacher-structured (academic) activities. The researcher utilized both quantitative and qualitative research approaches; data sources included 285 preschool observations made in three classrooms in Northern California. Data analysis consisted of descriptive statistics (e.g. frequencies/percentages, mean values, and standard deviations). In addition, children’s observed scores were also analyzed by normative scales using standardized z-scores. The findings of this study indicated that bilingual children engaged and interacted significantly more during free-play (non-academic) preschool classroom activities than during teacher-structured (academic) activities. Specific free-play activities enabling optimal engagement and second language acquisition were pretend play, free play, and monkey bars. The study’s major implication is that free-play (non-academic) activities may be much more helpful in developing bilingual preschoolers’ English-language skills than teacher-structured (academic) activities. Free-play activities are an affordance for making language available, which helps with building academic skills and cultural capital. This study proves that free-play activities are an affordance for language learning because bilingual children have shown dramatically greater engagement in non-academic activities (vs academic activities). The importance of free-play activities may extend beyond preschool classrooms (e.g. greater English-language development in early preschool may subsequently positively impact student performance in kindergarten). Thus, unstructured, social-based activities should be implemented for bilingual students in K-12 classrooms. Free-play (i.e. non-academic) activities should be implemented in preschool.

Factors influencing children's perceptions of choice within their free play activity: the impact of functional, structural and social affordances

Factors influencing children's perceptions of choice within their free play activity: the impact of functional, structural and social affordances

The Relationship between Parental Attitudes toward Nature and the Amount of Time Children Spend in Outdoor Recreation

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between parental attitudes toward nature and the amount of time children spend in in outdoor free play activities. Parents with children between 3 and 5 years old participated. Sixty-nine responses were gathered. The assessment tool was composed of four sections that asked parents about their attitudes toward nature and outdoor settings, their attitudes about their young children spending time outdoors, how much time their children spent in outdoor activities including free play, and demographic questions. Parents reported a positive view of nature and their children's outdoor recreation. Parents' attitudes toward nature and toward their children's outdoor recreation were related to the amount of time their children spent in free play outdoors.

Use of a tactile prompt to increase social initiations in children with autism

Making appropriate verbal initiations to others is an aspect of social interaction that can be problematic for individuals with autism. A variety of teaching and prompting methods have been developed to address the issue including the use of a tactile prompt, a small device that can fit in the participant's pocket and can be programmed to vibrate at regular intervals. Our aim was to extend the existing research on the use of the tactile prompt by incorporating reinforcement during intervention and attempting a systematic fading of the prompt. Three children with autism participated in Study 1 and two children in Study 2. In both studies, the intervention was conducted during free-play activities with mainstream peers. Results indicated that the participants’ verbal initiations to their peers increased in comparison to baseline. Additionally in Study 2, the use of both the tactile prompt and the prosthetic reinforcement were successfully faded. Implications regarding the use of covert prompting methods to help individuals with autism in the area of social interactions are discussed.

Biological Age and Sex-Related Declines in Physical Activity during Adolescence

Sex differences in the rate of decline in physical activity (PA) are most pronounced during adolescence. However, once boys and girls are aligned on biological age, sex differences in the patterns of PA become attenuated. The aim of this study was to test whether biological maturation can account for sex differences in participation in PA over time from late childhood to early adolescence. A prospective cohort of children (N = 2100; 1064 boys) was followed from ages 11 to 14 yr, with repeated assessments of PA and anthropometry. Self-reported participation in organized and free play activities was used to track participation in PA. Biological age was measured using an estimate of years to attainment of peak height velocity. Mixed-effects models were used to test whether controlling for biological age attenuates the effect of chronological age and sex on PA. As expected, the rate of decline in participation in PA was greater for girls than for boys (B = -1.18, P < 0.01). In multivariable analyses, adjusting for biological age completely attenuated the effect of sex and chronological age for participation in free play activities, but not for participation in organized play. Overall, biological age was a stronger predictor of participation than chronological age. The effect of biological age on sex by chronological age differences may be specific to certain types of PA participation. Given the importance of maturation to participation in activity, it is suggested that public health strategies target biological not chronological age to prevent declines in PA during adolescence particularly when promoting habitual or lifestyle activity.

숲에서의 자유놀이가 유아의 사회성 발달에 미치는 영향

본 연구의 목적은 숲에서 유아들의 자유놀이가 유아의 사회성 발달에 미치는 영향을 알아보는 것이다. 이 연구를 위해 제주시 H 유치원의 만 4세 유아 24명이 참여하였다. 참여자들은 매회 2시간씩 자신들의 흥미와 요구에 따라 자발적으로 숲에서의 자유놀이를 하였다. 이 자유놀이는 매주 2회씩, 총 12주에 걸쳐 수행되었다. 숲에서의 자유 놀이활동의 효과를 검증하기 위해 전후검사 t-검증을 실시하였으며 그 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 숲에서의 자유놀이 활동은 유아의 사회성을 향상시켰다. 둘째, 숲에서의 자유놀이활동은 사회성의 하위요인인 협동성, 조망수용능력, 자 율성, 그리고 상호작용 모두에 유의한 향상을 가져왔다. 이러한 연구결과를 통해 숲은 유아들 스스로 다양하고 새로 운 놀이를 만들 수 있는 풍부한 자연물을 제공하며, 숲에서의 이러한 놀이활동은 유아들 상호간에 활발한 교류를 통 해 원만한 친구관계를 형성하게 할뿐만 아니라 유아들의 사회성 발달에 긍정적인 영향을 미친다는 것을 알 수 있다.

The Characteristics of Dialogue between Teacher and Child during Free play activity

The Characteristics of Dialogue between Teacher and Child during Free play activity

An Exploratory Look at the Relationships Among Math Skills, Motivational Factors and Activity Choice

This study of a preschool classroom of 4 year old children examines underlying skills of number sense such as counting and spatial skills and Spontaneous Focusing on Numerosity. It also investigates children’s patterns of engaging in spontaneous mathematical activities in free-play activity centers in relation to behaviors associated with classroom achievement such as attention/persistence, self-regulation, perceived math ability, and motivation. A mixed method design with structured empirical measures and naturalistic observations was used. Several data sources were analyzed, including videotaped interviews, systematic observational data, and teacher ratings. Findings indicate that children who spontaneously focus on numerosity are advanced in their counting skills. Teacher rating of motivation and interest is also correlated with counting skills and spatial skills. Teacher rating of persistence is correlated with counting skills and child self-reports of persistence in math correlated with spatial skills. Variability existed in free play activity time, with social or dramatic play the only activity observed for all children. The major math activities chosen were those involving block construction and some computer games. It was noted that students less skilled in math tended to choose less cognitively challenging activities involving small motor tasks rather than more cognitively challenging activities. Using a Vygotskian socio-cultural lens, several suggestions are made about how verbal interactions with teachers and other adults may contribute to children’s cognitive competence in math.

The effect of activity type on the engagement and interaction of young children with disabilities in inclusive childcare settings

► The engagement of children with disabilities in childcare was observed across activity types. ► Level of engagement was higher during free play and routines. ► Children with disabilities were more actively engaged during routines and more passively engaged during group activities. ► Level of adult interaction was comparable across activity types but interaction with peers more frequent during free play. ► Children with ASD engaged less and interacted less with peers in free play than children with other disabilities. The engagement and adult and peer interaction of 37 young children with a range of disabilities was measured in free play, group, and meal-routine activities in inclusive childcare settings. A significant effect for activity type was found for total engagement, active engagement, and passive engagement, with the children being more engaged in free-play and meal-routine activities than group activities. Free-play and meal-routine activities provided better opportunities for active engagement than did group activities, but children were more actively engaged during meal-routine activities than during free play. Passive engagement was more commonly observed during group activities. Children interacted more with their peers during free play. When children with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder were compared with children with other disabilities, they were found to be significantly less engaged during free play and interacted less with their peers. The implications of these findings for inclusive practice in childcare settings are discussed.

Training and Generalization of Peer-Directed Mands With Non-vocal Children With Autism

The current investigation evaluated the effects of extinction and prompts on training and generalization of peer-directed mands for preferred items using a picture exchange communication system with 2 children diagnosed with autism. Results showed that independent mands with a peer increased during treatment for both participants, generalized to a novel peer without explicit training for 1 participant and following training for the second participant, and maintained in a more naturalistic setting that simulated a free-play activity in a classroom.