Free Open Source Software Research Articles

Multiorder hydrologic Position for Europe — a Set of Features for Machine Learning and Analysis in Hydrology

The presented dataset EU-MOHP v013.1.1 provides multiscale information on the hydrologic position (MOHP) of a geographic point within its respective river network and catchment as gridded maps. More precisely, it comprises the three measures “divide to stream distance” (DSD) as sum of the distances to the nearest stream and catchment divide, “lateral position” (LP) as a relative measure of the position between the nearest stream and divide and “stream distance” (SD) as the distance to the nearest stream. These three measures are calculated for nine hydrologic orders to reflect different spatial scales from local to continental. Its spatial extent covers major parts of the European Economic Area (EEA39) which also largely coincides with physiographical Europe. Although there are multiple potential use cases, this dataset serves predominantly as valuable static environmental descriptor or predictor variable for hydrogeological and hydrological modelling such as mapping or forecasting tasks using machine learning. The generation of this dataset uses free open source software only and therefore can be transferred to other regions or input datasets.

A New Feature-Based Method for Similarity Measurement under the Linux Operating System

This paper presents a new algorithm in an important research field which is the semantic word similarity estimation. A new feature-based algorithm is proposed for measuring the word semantic similarity for the Arabic language. It is a highly systematic language where its words exhibit elegant and rigorous logic. The score of sematic similarity between two Arabic words is calculated as a function of their common and total taxonomical features. An Arabic knowledge source is employed for extracting the taxonomical features as a set of all concepts that subsumed the concepts containing the compared words. The previously developed Arabic word benchmark datasets are used for optimizing and evaluating the proposed algorithm. In this paper, the performance of the new feature-based algorithm is compared against the performance of seven ontology-based algorithms adapted to Arabic. The results of the evaluation and comparison experiments show that the new proposed algorithm outperforms the adapted word similarity algorithms on the Arabic word benchmark dataset. The proposed algorithm will be included in the AWN-similarity which is free open-source software for Arabic.

Modelling flooding due to runoff from spoil heaps during heavy rainfall

ABSTRACT Flash floods generated by runoff from abandoned spoil heaps have posed great risks to neighbouring areas but there has been little study on the process, so it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of runoff retention or detention measures. These events are likely to become more frequent in a future climate change scenario. To provide a means by which interested parties can study such events, including methods of mitigation, a computer modelling approach is proposed using free open-source software. Unlike conventional tools that solve the shallow water equations, the software tool uses a cellular automata approach to reduce the computational overhead. It is also easy to use so it is suitable for use by practitioners who are not hydrology experts. The method is illustrated by modelling a historical flood in the UK involving spoil heap runoff. Good correlation was observed between the characteristics of the actual and simulated flood event.

Antibiotic Resistance And Monitoring Of Antibiotic Consumption In Hospital Settings

Introduction: Antibiotics are one of the key discoveries in human history. Unfortunately, the global rise in antimicrobial drug resistance has become one of the most pressing medical problems. Monitoring of antibiotic consumption is one of the most important components of all programs aimed at controlling the problem with the rising antimicrobial resistance. Aim: The aim of this article is to present a free and internationally standardized electronic-based method for calculating the consumption of antibiotics in hospitals and in society. Methodology: The system for classification of antibiotic agents ATC/DDD (Anatomical Therapeutic Chemi-cal/Defined Daily Dose), which is an international standard for calculation of antibiotic consumption in a univer-sal technical unit of measurement—defined daily dose, is used. Practical Examples and Recommendations: The problem with the increasing antibiotic resistance was first discussed internationally at The Microbial Threat conference in Copenhagen in 1998. Monitoring antibiotic consumption is one of the key components of The European Community Strategy Against Antimicrobial Re-sistance from 2001. For the convenience of the users, open-source free software programs, incorporating the ATC/DDD system, such as ABC Calc and AMC Tool have been created for easy calculation of antimicrobial consumption. Discussion: According to the latest ECDC report, total antibiotic consumption in EU countries has been decreasing since 2014, with data for 2020 showing that antimicrobial consumption has decreased further during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. The only exception is Bulgaria, where it has doubled. Conclusion: ECDC data show that our country lags significantly behind other EU countries and immediate strict measures and actions are needed to combat the rising tide of antimicrobial resistance. Given the availabil-ity of free open-source programs for monitoring antimicrobial consumption, it would be very helpful to use them more widely in Bulgarian hospitals, and hospital pharmacists should play a key role in this process.

A new version of the Langelier-Ludwig square diagram under a compositional perspective

The Langelier-Ludwig square diagram is a commonly used diagnostic tool in groundwater chemistry. Suitable groupings of cations and anions are selected and plotted as percentages of milliequivalents with the sums of the selected cations and anions plotted on the y- and x-axes, respectively. It displays relative ratios rather than absolute concentration whereby each axis ranges from 0 to 50 meq%. However, the sample space in which data are represented in a Langelier-Ludwig square diagram is indeed given by the simplex. Incorrect conclusions may be drawn when the compositional nature of compositional data is not taken into account, i.e., a change in one value in one component changes all other values due to due to the constant sum constraint of the measured chemical elements. Correlations are thus influenced by the presence of negative bias in the covariance structure and linear or nonlinear patterns on the square diagram can be misinterpreted. A new version of the Langelier-Ludwig square diagram based on a well-chosen coordinate representation of cations and anions is proposed. The advantage of the revised diagram is that all the information is contained in the log-ratios describing the intricate relationship between chemical species in aqueous solutions. It is shown that the geochemical interpretation of this new diagram – based on the relative dominance of major ions and distance from the (robust) barycenter of the data – provides a better and unbiased understanding of water-environment interactions. To further aid interpretation, (robust) tolerance ellipses show the correlation structure in the new version of the Langelier-Ludwig square diagram, and clustering algorithms can be applied to divide the data into groups beforehand. A bunch of different plotting options and interactive representations complete the implementation in free open-source software. It is recommended to replace the classic Langelier-Ludwig diagram with the new version.

Clinical-radiomics nomogram for identifying HER2 status in patients with breast cancer: A multicenter study.

PurposeTo develop and validate a clinical-radiomics nomogram based on radiomics features and clinical risk factors for identification of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) status in patients with breast cancer (BC).MethodsTwo hundred and thirty-five female patients with BC were enrolled from July 2018 to February 2022 and divided into a training group (from center I, 115 patients), internal validation group (from center I, 49 patients), and external validation group (from centers II and III, 71 patients). The preoperative MRI of all patients was obtained, and radiomics features were extracted by a free open-source software called 3D Slicer. The Least Absolute Shrinkage and Selection Operator regression model was used to identify the most useful features. The radiomics score (Rad-score) was calculated by using the radiomics signature-based formula. A clinical-radiomics nomogram combining clinical factors and Rad-score was developed through multivariate logistic regression analysis. The performance of the nomogram was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve and decision curve analysis (DCA).ResultsA total of 2,553 radiomics features were extracted, and 21 radiomics features were selected as the most useful radiomics features. Multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that Rad-score, progesterone receptor (PR), and Ki-67 were independent parameters to distinguish HER2 status. The clinical-radiomics nomogram, which comprised Rad-score, PR, and Ki-67, showed a favorable classification capability, with AUC of 0.87 [95% confidence internal (CI), 0.80 to 0.93] in the training group, 0.81 (95% CI, 0.69 to 0.94) in the internal validation group, and 0.84 (95% CI, 0.75 to 0.93) in the external validation group. DCA illustrated that the nomogram was useful in clinical practice.ConclusionsThe nomogram combined with Rad-score, PR, and Ki-67 can identify the HER2 status of BC.

The long journey to set up artificial intelligence (AI) data for automatic detection and localization of missed mesial-buccal (MB2) canals in endodontically-treated maxillary molars with cone beam computed tomography

<h3>Objective</h3> To review the process and challenges of data preparation and validation for AI-assisted detection of unobturated MB2 canals in endodontically-treated maxillary molar teeth. <h3>Study Design</h3> A retrospective review of existing CBCT scans (n=400) of endodontically treated maxillary molars with clinically confirmed missed MB2 canals was performed. Studies with significant beam hardening artifact and calcified canals limiting visualization of the missed MB2 canals were excluded. The studies were then anonymized and transferred to a HIPAA-compliant server. Segmentation of the canals and roots was done manually along serial axial cross-sections using ITK-SNAP (open-source free software version 3.8.0). Two sets of samples, training and test, were designated. The validation of the test samples was created using an iterative approach. Upon completion of the training, the performance of the AI will be tested on 20 obturated maxillary molar roots utilizing 10 scans without MB2 canals and 10 scans with MB2 canals. <h3>Results</h3> The challenges of data preparation were two-fold: 1) Data selection: Of the 400 scans, 350 studies were excluded due to incomplete clinical information, beam hardening artifacts, or calcification of the MB2 canal. 2) Segmentation: Manual segmentation of the canal was limited by anatomical variations and intermittent calcifications along the length of the canal. The AI training is currently in progress and definitive results will be presented at the AAOMR meeting. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Conducting an AI study is exciting and impactful, yet the limitations due to preparing data and limitation of the segmentation software in localizing MB2 canals require substantial time and patience. <b>Statement of Ethical Review</b> Ethical review was sought and study was exempted from ethical review

Computer-Aided Surgical Simulation through Digital Dynamic 3D Skeletal Segments for Correcting Torsional Deformities of the Lower Limbs in Children with Cerebral Palsy

Torsional deformities of the lower limb are common in children with cerebral palsy (CP)-determining gait problems. The mechanisms underlying transverse plane gait deviations arise from a combination of dynamic and static factors. The dynamic elements may be due to spasticity, contractures and muscle imbalances, while the static ones may result from excessive femoral anteversion, which decreases the efficiency of the hip abductors by reducing the muscular lever arms. A therapeutic approach has been identified in multi-level functional surgery for the lower limb. Treating the malalignments of the lower limb with femoral or tibial derotation provides optimal results, especially when supported by adequate biomechanical planning. This planning requires an integrated static-dynamic approach of morphological and functional evaluation, based on radiological measurements, physical examination and gait analysis. Instrumented gait analysis has been confirmed as essential in the evaluation and surgical decision making process for children affected by CP with transverse plane deformities. Computational simulations based on musculoskeletal models that integrate patient-specific CT morphological data into gait analysis can be used for the implementation of a surgical simulation system in pre-operative planning to test the possible effects of the different surgical treatment options on the torsional defects of the lower limbs. Recently, a computer-aided simulation process has been implemented in the preoperative planning of complex osteotomies for limb deformities in children. Three-dimensional (3D) digital models were generated from Computed Tomography (CT) scans, using free open-source software. The aim of this study is to integrate the patient-specific CT musculoskeletal model with morphological data and gait analysis data, with the personalized calculation of kinematic and kinetic parameters, which allow us to generate an “avatar” of the patient for a more in-depth evaluation of the gait abnormalities. The computational simulation platform proposed provides a realistic movable musculoskeletal model in a virtual environment, with the possibility of planning and monitoring the effects of virtual three-dimensional surgical corrections.

Taxa and super taxa of schema evolution and their relationship to activity, heartbeat and duration

In this paper, we present the findings of a large study of the evolution of the schema of 195 Free Open Source Software projects. We identify families of evolutionary behaviors, or taxa, in FOSS projects. A large percentage of the projects demonstrate very few, if any, actions of schema evolution. Two other taxa involve the evolution via focused actions, with either a single focused maintenance action, or a large percentage of evolution activity grouped in no more than a couple interventions. Schema evolution also involves moderate, and active evolution, with very different volumes of updates to the schema. We also investigate how the different taxa relate to measurable properties of schema evolution, specifically, duration of schema and project updates, activity volume, and heartbeat. We show that although different taxa have practically very similar duration, the evolutionary characteristics differ in analogy to the “active” character of each taxon. Moreover, by observing certain similarities in the measurable properties of the taxa, we take the opportunity to introduce super taxa, which complement the previous taxonomy with the groupings of the aforementioned taxa in terms of overall profile similarity, resulting in a more concise and intuitive taxonomy, providing a cleaner separation of evolution measures. Finally, we show that schema evolution is frequently, a time-concentrated activity.

FOSS (Free Open Source Software) Integration to Implement WebGIS-Based Information System of Kelud Volcano

The purpose of this research is to establish a webGIS-based disaster information system. WebGIS application is used as a dissemination strategy of geospatial information of the data obtained from the surrounding area of Kelud Volcano. This application utilizes the Free Open Source Software (FOSS) standardized by the Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC). The initial step in the development of this system includes providing a database for geospatial data storing consisting of landslide-prone zones, land suitability, and tourism which were the focus of this research. The second step is the GeoJSON data conversion and Web Mapping Service (WMS) creation. This study has several results in the form of; 1) the establishment of a web-based GIS application system using FOSS standardized by OGC provides benefits in terms of cost efficiency in the development and provides convenience for the application because it is widely used by the community; 2) the development of information systems built in two directions between community participation and disaster web managers shows effective results; 3) the results of the two system tests show that the system built has no functional problems but, the version of the web browser used needs to be considered. This application is expected to build a communication aspect between policymakers and the community concerning an integrated disaster information management.

Rancang Bangun dan Analisis Penggunaan Sistem Informasi Manajemen Proyek Berbasis Free Open-Source Software (FOSS) pada Perusahaan Berskala Besar di Jawa Tengah

Design and Analysis of the Use of a Project Management Information System Based on Free Open-Source Software (Foss) in Large-Scale Companies in Central Java. To increase knowledge about project communication management and organizational communication in the cigarette industry at PT. Aman Indah Makmur, especially with regard to the use of FOSS as a tool for internal interaction and communication. Design and Analysis of the Use of a Project Management Information System Based on Free Open-Source Software (Foss) in Large-Scale Companies in Central Java. Qualitative methods were used, literature research, online ethnography, and observations were carried out to better understand important events where FOSS Google Spreadsheet users interacted, communicated, and collaborated. As the Collaboration Metric Model shows, FOSS Google Sheets can be an effective and efficient tool in large companies with 50 to 100 employees.

Comparative Study of Open Source Content Management Systems (CMS) in Digital Era

Content Management System (CMS) is the software that can be used to organize, control or manage contents of a website. The data can include texts, links, images, videos, HTML documents and other form of media. The CMS can be free open source software where it can be downloaded and installed free of cost or sometimes it may be a paid depending upon the packages of the software. The reason for the paid software is that some annual maintenance may be needed in future and to upgrade the software. Three basic CMS software Open source, Proprietary and Software as a service has been discussed with their platform of application and supported databases. It was found that this soft ware has used different types of platforms to integrate the software. The installation process of one of the free open source software WordPress also has been discussed in this topic. The purpose of the CMS is to help users to best design their websites. The aim of the study is to comparatively study the features and perspectives of different content management systems. Research and review methodology has been adapted to retrieve the contents for the above title. It was found that maximum number of CMS database used PHP or JAVA platform to design the soft ware and few CMS soft ware used other platforms like ASP.NET, PERL, PYTHON, C++ and others to design the software.

Find out if your protein is O‐GlcNAc modified: The O‐GlcNAc database

Post‐translational modifications (PTMs) are ubiquitous and essential for protein function and signaling, motivating the need for sustainable benefit and open models of web databases. Highly conserved O‐GlcNAcylation is a case example of one of the most recently discovered PTMs, investigated by a growing community. Historically, details about O‐GlcNAcylated proteins and sites were dispersed across literature and in non‐O‐GlcNAc‐focused, rapidly outdated or now defunct web databases. In a first effort to fill the gap, we recently published a human O‐GlcNAcome catalog with a basic web interface. Based on the enthusiasm generated by this first resource, we extended our O‐GlcNAcome catalog to include data from 42 distinct organisms and released the O‐GlcNAc Database v1.2. In this version, more than 14 500 O‐GlcNAcylated proteins and 11 000 O‐GlcNAcylation sites are referenced from the curation of 2200 publications. Here, we present the extensive features of the O‐GlcNAc Database, including the user‐friendly interface, back‐end and client–server interactions. Finally, this database system can be administrated with little to no programming skills and is meant to be an example of a useful, sustainable and cost‐efficient resource, which exclusively relies on free open‐source software elements (www.oglcnac.mcw.edu).

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS OF CONTROLLABILITY PROCESSES FOR ROBOTIC WHEELED PLATFORMS TAKING INTO ACCOUNT RESTRICTIONS OF JERK MOTIONS

The computer simulations are considered as the required tool to design the suitable autonomous control systems optimal in different senses and especially in providing the restrictions of the jerk motions for the robotic wheeled platforms. The subject matter of this research is the development of the theory and methods for computer simulations of the controllability processes of the robotic wheeled platforms. The goal of this research is to consider the jerks of the wheeled platforms, and the jerks are reduced to the limitation of the acceleration time derivative of the mass center of the wheeled platform, so that this derivative is considered as the quantitative estimation of the jerks. The incorrectness in the Hadamard's sense for direct defining the jerks by differentiations of the phase coordinates in the case of computer simulations using the numerical methods is discussed. Tasks of this research are in developing the generalized approaches for mathematical modelling and computer simulations and in theoretical receiving of the properties inherent for the wheeled platforms and suitable for verification the computer simulations results, as well as in making the calculations to have the quantitative results about the controllability processes for the particular case of the electromechanical four-wheeled platform under the straight motion with the mode of speeding-up from the state of the rest. Methods of this research are based on the Lagrange's equations of second kind, as well as on the electromechanical analogies, and on final representing the mathematical models in the form of the system of the first ordered ordinary differential equations with the initial conditions for further numerical solving. The computer simulations are accomplished by using the Scilab free open source software. Results of this research are in the proposed suitable way for computing the jerks by the phase coordinates without its differentiations allow excluding the incorrectness in the Hadamard's sense, as well as in representing the controllability processes for the electromechanical wheeled platform, including the results for the velocities, the accelerations and the jerks which are necessary to illustrate the controllability processes for the robotic wheeled platforms. By comparison with the theoretically established inherent properties of the wheeled platforms it is shown the correctness of the results of the computer simulations. Conclusions about this research are that the developed approaches for computer simulations of the controllability processes for the robotic wheeled platforms allow considering influence of the control on the different characteristics including the velocity, the acceleration, as well as the jerk motions which are required for designing the controls optimal in different senses.

3D fluid–structure interaction simulation of an hydrofoil at low Reynolds number

Understanding the interaction between wings and fluids is of great interest in many fields such as aeronautics, wind turbines, civil engineering, naval and industrial domain, among others. To improve our knowledge, scientists have conducted more and more theoretical studies with numerical simulation. Due to the high complexity of the coupled phenomena leading to time-consuming fluid–structure interaction simulations, the overwhelming majority of these studies are restricted to two dimensions. Here, we present the full three-dimensional fluid–structure simulation of a foil in water. A deformable NACA 0015 wing, at 15° angle of attack, undergoes a 1m.s−1 flow in a water tunnel. We handle the simulation with free open-source software: OpenFOAM (fluid), CalculiX (solid) and preCICE (fluid–structure coupling). An implicit coupling is considered. The access to high-performance computing facilities allows us to run a Delayed-Detached-Eddy Simulation (DDES) based on a 15-million-cell mesh resolving the boundary layer on the wing. We also develop a meshing tool based on free software and Python scripts to facilitate the meshing process of wings or any shape in rectilinear geometries (2D and 3D). Then, we manage a thorough numerical investigation of the 3D phenomena involved in this fluid–structure problem. In particular, we reproduce the vortex-induced vibration process and observe the same fundamental frequency for the vortex shedding, the wing displacement oscillation and the lift and drag coefficients. Thus, we evidence that wing oscillatory displacements, of the order of 0.1% of the chord only, significantly affect the behavior of the flow.

Software Development Metrics With a Purpose

A new generation of toolsets that are flexible enough to adapt to the data analytics needs of a given scenario is emerging to analyze free, open source software (FOSS). GrimoireLab is one such toolset that meets many of the needs of foundations, developers, and companies.

Advancing Near-Real-Time Quality Controls of Meteorological Observations

Abstract Meteorological observations from ground weather stations are of the upmost importance to implement and run sectoral climate services and to perform scientific activities, such as models’ evaluation and data assimilation. However, meteorological observations may be affected by errors deteriorating the quality and the reliability of the products based on these data. To avoid such a cascade of effects, it is essential to quality check meteorological observations in near–real time. A new system based on several levels of increasing complexity checks is proposed here. Besides the standard quality controls, this system applies dynamic and adaptive checks targeting exactly the locations and the data under analysis. The proposed system is designed to be flexible and easily modifiable thanks to its combined R and XML implementation. To facilitate its applicability, the proposed system is made available as a free open-source software: QuackMe.

Assessing Phytosanitary Application Efficiency of a Boom Sprayer Machine Using RGB Sensor in Grassy Fields

The systematic use of plant protection products is now being called into question with the growing awareness of the risks they can represent for the environment and human health. The application of precision agriculture technologies helps to improve agricultural production but also to rationalize input costs and improve ecological footprints. Here we present a study on fungicide application efficiency and its impact on the grass quality of a golf course green using the free open-source image analysis software FIJI (Image J) to analyze ground RGB (high-resolution digital cameras) and multispectral aerial imagery in combination with experimental data of spray pressure and hydraulic slot nozzle size of a boom sprayer machine. The multivariate regression model best explained variance in the normalized green-red difference index (NGRDI) as a relevant indicator of healthy turfgrass fields from the aerial, ground, and machine data set.

Interactive software for visualization of nontargeted mass spectrometry data—FluoroMatch visualizer

Abstract There are thousands of different per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in everyday products and in the environment. Discerning the abundance and diversity of PFAS is essential for understanding sources, fate, exposure routes, and the associated health impacts of PFAS. While comprehensive detection of PFAS requires the use of nontargeted mass spectrometry, data processing is time intensive and prone to error. While automated approaches can compile all mass spectrometric evidence (e.g., retention time, isotopic pattern, fragmentation, and accurate mass) and provide ranking or scoring metrics for annotations, confident assignment of structure often still requires extensive manual review of the data. To aid this process, we present FluoroMatch Visualizer, an open-source free software which was developed to provide interactive visualizations which include normalized mass defect plots, retention time versus accurate mass plots, MS/MS fragmentation spectra, and tables of annotations and metadata. All graphs and tables are interactive and have cross-filtering such that when a user selects a feature, all other visuals highlight the feature of interest. Several filtering options have been integrated into this novel data visualization tool, specifically with the capability to filter by PFAS chemical series, fragment(s), assignment confidence, and MS/MS file(s). FluoroMatch Visualizer is part of FluoroMatch Suite, which consists of FluoroMatch Modular, FluoroMatch Flow, and FluoroMatch Generator. FluoroMatch Visualizer enables annotations to be extensively validated, increasing annotation confidence. The resulting visualizations and datasets can be shared online in an interactive format for community-based PFAS discovery. FluoroMatch visualizer holds potential to promote harmonization of nontargeted data processing and interpretation throughout the PFAS scientific community.

Volunteered geographic information mobile application for participatory landslide inventory mapping

Participatory landslide inventory mapping using the Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) mobile app is a promising method to produce a landslide inventory map. The aim of this research is to describe the development and implementation of the VGI mobile app for participatory landslide inventory mapping. The architecture VGI mobile app is developed on the basis of Free Open-source Software for Geospatial Application server-client software to ensure reproducibility and flexibility, and to reduce cost. Anyone can reproduce, modify, and share the code, which suggests improvement in the collective ability to use, prepare, and landslide inventory update. Landslide inventory using VGI mobile app shows that the tool and method successfully map landslides in the landslide prone area (Magelang Regency, Central Java Province, Indonesia) with fairly high levels of effectiveness and convenience. Magelang Regency, one of the landslide prone areas in Java, is located in the intermountain basin surrounded by Menoreh Mountain, Merapi, Merbabu, Suropati-Telomoyo Complex, and Sumbing Volcano. In this study, landslide inventory mapping using VGI mobile app was applied in Magelang Regency by 17 volunteers from BPBD (Regional Agency for Disaster Management) Magelang Regency for three days. Landslides area occurred from 2017 to 2019 were properly identified and mapped by the volunteers. The sizes of landslides varied from 5.2 m2 to 4,632.5 m2, and the average was 208.2 m2. A team of volunteer was able to map 7-10 landslides per day. Participatory mapping using VGI mobile app reduces the time in transferring field data to a GIS database, in contrast to conventional participatory landslide inventory mapping. VGI mobile app allows users to provide new geographical landslide data, share landslide data rapidly, ensure consistency of landslide data, and improve accessibility of landslide data. The use of the VGI mobile app for participatory landslide inventory mapping provides new opportunities to improve risk assessment, preparedness, and early action and warning to landslide hazard.