Free Oil Research Articles

Free radical scavenging effects of grapefruit essential oil nanoemulsion stabilized with carrageenan and its cytotoxicity assay on HeLa cell line

Grapefruit peel essential oil exhibited antioxidant and antibacterial activities attributed to their phenolic and flavonoid compounds. In this study, nanoemulsion of grapefruit peel essential oil and carrageenan was investigated for their antioxidant properties. The oil in water (o/w) emulsion was formulated with 0.5% and 1.0% (w/v) grapefruit peel essential oil and carrageenan. Carrageenan was utilised as an encapsulating agent to decrease volatility of essential oil and increase its stability. The resulting nanoemulsion was characterised using transmission electron microscopes (TEM), ultraviolet–visible (UV–vis) spectrophotometry and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Nanoemulsion formulated with 0.5% grapefruit peel essential oil exhibited strong radical scavenging 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) effects showing the highest half maximal effective concentration value (EC50) at 83.4 ± 1.4 mg l−1 and revealed the highest total phenolic content (80.1 ± 11.8 mg GAE/g) in comparison with 1.0% grapefruit peel essential oil-nanoemulsion and free grapefruit peel essential oil (2.0% w/v). The cytotoxicity of nanoemulsion prepared from grapefruit peel essential oil against HeLa cells also exhibited higher than 90% of cell viability, which was not affected by the formulation of nanoemulsion. The incorporation of grapefruit peel essential oil into nanoemulsion improved its stability while retaining its bioactivity and non-toxicity.

Development of protein isolate-alginate-based delivery system to improve oxidative stability of njangsa (Ricinodendron heudelotii) seed oil

This study aims to enhance the oxidative stability of njangsa seed oil (NSO) through encapsulation by ionic gelation using sodium alginate (ALG) solely or in combination with Bambara groundnut protein isolate (BPI) as wall materials. The encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity of the microcapsules produced using ALG and ALG-BPI were 73.76 and 76.30% and 57.99 and 61.48%, respectively. Confocal microscopic analysis showed an even distribution of NSO within the ALG-BPI microcapsules, which was confirmed by FTIR analysis. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed a rough and porous structure for ALG-NSO, which explains the higher NSO released of 22.29 and 78.51% during simulated gastric and intestinal digestion, respectively compared to ALG-BPI-NSO. Higher melting and degradation temperatures were obtained for ALG-BPI-NSO (304.76 °C) compared to ALG-NSO (286.94 °C). The free fatty acid content, peroxide, p-anisidine, and thiobarbituric acid values of encapsulated NSO were lower than in the free oil throughout the 21-day study period, with NSO encapsulated in ALG-BPI showing higher improved oxidative stability than with alginate alone. The study provided valuable information on fabricating an alginate-Bambara groundnut protein isolate-based effective delivery system for NSO.

Improving vitamin D stability and antioxidant activity in imitation mozzarella cheese by conjugated cricket protein with fructooligosaccharide

Conjugated cricket protein with fructooligosaccharide (FOS), called CPF, is a new alternative protein ingredient with great potential for food industry applications. This study aimed to investigate the effect of CPF as a partial substitute for rennet casein on the composition, appearance, color, antioxidant activities, sensory characteristics, and functional characteristics of imitated mozzarella cheese. The effect of CPF on vitamin D retention of cheese after processing and 28 subsequent days of storage was also studied. Incorporation of CPF by 10–40 g/100g resulted in significantly increased FOS as prebiotic fibers by about 0.1–4.2 g/100g in imitation mozzarella cheese, but slightly decreased the protein content and shifted color balance darker, with more yellow and red. The addition of CPF reduced hardness, cohesiveness, springiness, and stretchability (25.0–3.6 cm) but increased meltability, adhesiveness, and free oil release (2.0–9.3 cm) of cheeses. In addition, CPF enhanced vitamin D stability in the cheese matrix by about 3 times after heat treatment and 2.8 times after 28 days of storage (4 °C) when compared to the control. It is concluded that adding 10–20 g/100g CPF in imitation cheese improved vitamin D stability and provided acceptable sensory scores for consumers (like moderately, 7.1–7.3).

Ultra-condensed Fat: A Novel Fat Product for Volume Augmentation.

Fat transplantation retention rate is individualized and unpredictable. The presence of blood components and oil droplets in the injected lipoaspirate increases inflammation and fibrosis in a dose-dependent manner, and is probably the key factor associated with poor retention. This study describes a volumetric fat grafting strategy based on optimization of grafts via screening intact fat particles and absorbing free oil droplets and impurities. Centrifuged fat components were analyzed by n-hexane leaching. A special device was applied to de-oil intact fat components and obtain ultra-condensed fat (UCF). UCF was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy, particle size analysis, and flow cytometric analysis. Histological and immunohistochemical changes were investigated in a nude mouse fat graft model over 90days. The lower 50% of centrifuged fat was concentrated to 40% of the original volume to obtain UCF. In UCF, the free oil droplet content was less than 10%, more than 80% of particles were larger than 1000µm, and architecturally important fat components were present. The retention rate of UCF was significantly higher than that of Coleman fat on day 90 (57.5 ± 2.7% vs. 32.8 ± 2.5%, p < 0.001). Histological analysis detected small preadipocytes with multiple intracellular lipid droplets on day 3 in UCF grafts, indicative of early adipogenesis. Angiogenesis and macrophage infiltration were observed in UCF grafts soon after transplantation. Adipose regeneration with UCF involves rapid macrophage infiltration and exit, resulting in angiogenesis and adipogenesis. UCF may serve as a lipofiller which is beneficial for fat regeneration. This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors http://www.springer.com/00266 .

Health oil preparation from gardenia seeds by aqueous enzymatic extraction combined with puffing pre-treatment and its properties analysis.

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01319-9.

Oregano essential oil as an alternative antimicrobial for the control of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella in Turkey mortadella during refrigerated storage.

Given consumer preference for “natural” and clean-labeled products, validating new ingredients that achieve the same antimicrobial, antioxidant, or other functions as those being replaced is critical. In this study, the antimicrobial activity of free and encapsulated oregano essential oil (OEO) utilized as ingredients in the formulation of turkey mortadella was independently tested against cocktails of Listeria monocytogenes and Salmonella spp. throughout 13 days of storage at 10 °C. Their activity was compared to potassium lactate (PL, 1 g/100 g or 2 g/100 g) and potassium sorbate (PS, 0.1 g/100 g). It was found that 0.5 g/100 g free OEO was more effective than PS and did not allow more than 2 log-cycles growth of L. monocytogenes. Encapsulation of 0.25 g/100 g OEO by complex coacervation or emulsification techniques did not enhance the antimicrobial efficiency of the oil. Combining 0.05 g/100 g of encapsulated OEO with 1.0 g/100 g PL effectively controlled L. monocytogenes growth but was no more effective than the formulation with 1.0 g/100 g PL. Results highlight the importance of testing potential alternative antimicrobials in specific foods and of considering the cost-benefit of encapsulation approaches which need further research as potential concealers of undesired sensory attributes.

Chemoattractability of amino acid glycine, fish oil and star anise oil in smooth marron (Cherax cainii Austin & Ryan, 2002)

The chemoattractability of three attractants, the free amino acid glycine, fish oil and star anise oil, Illicium verum Hook f., in the freshwater crayfish, smooth marron, Cherax cainii Austin & Ryan, 2002, was assessed by measuring their excitatory capacity and time spent in pre- and post- attractant phase. Marron were observed individually for 5 min in 10 L glass aquaria before and 5 min after the addition of filtered freshwater as a control, glycine high (10-4 mol L-1), glycine low (10-6 mol L-1), fish oil and anise oil. Attractants were added directly to the aquarium water, and the marron excitatory capacity was recorded. Frequency was recorded of the excitatory behaviours: antennae wave, antennule wave, pereopod wave, maxilliped wave, cheliped wave, and cheliped grasp. Time spent in pre- and post- attractant phase activities; resting, walking, climbing wall, and searching for food, were also recorded. The excitatory response of C. cainii was shown as an increase in pereopod sweeping and probing. Overall, the frequency of antennule wave, leg wave and maxilliped wave increased during the post-attractant phase (p < 0.05). Marron spent more time searching for food with glycine high, anise oil and fish oil than with filtered freshwater. Resting time was higher in marron given filtered freshwater than those given glycine high. The results of this study show that glycine, fish oil, and anise oil are effective chemoattractants of marron, however, their suitability as feeding incitants still needs to be assessed further.

A New Method for Mobility Logging Evaluation Based on Flowing Porosity in Shale Oil Reservoirs

Shale oil reservoirs differ from conventional reservoirs in several aspects, including the sedimentary model, accumulation mechanism, and reservoir characteristics, which pose significant challenges to their exploration and development. Therefore, identifying the location of optimal spots is crucial for the successful exploration and development of shale oil reservoirs. Mobility, particularly in low-permeability shale oil reservoirs with nano-scale pores, is a crucial petrophysical property that determines the development plan. However, two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (2D-NMR) is expensive and has limited applicability, although it can estimate shale oil mobility. Hence, it is of great significance to find a precise method for evaluating shale oil mobility using conventional logging. In this paper, we propose a new method for assessing shale oil mobility based on free oil porosity derived from the difference in flowing porosity detected at different ranges of logging, utilizing the Maxwell conductivity model and conductivity efficiency theory. Our study shows that longitudinal-T2 (T1-T2) NMR logging can accurately evaluate the mobility of shale oil. This is demonstrated by comparing the processing results obtained from our proposed method with those from 2D-NMR and laboratory NMR experiments. The predicted results based on conventional well logs also show good agreement with experimental results, confirming the effectiveness and reliability of our new method. Our proposed method carries reference significance for evaluating shale oil reservoir quality.

Role of pH and cations on emulsion formation and stability of crude oils

Emulsification plays a crucial role in various areas. However, undesirable emulsions, especially water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions, formed during crude oil production, transportation, processing, and stockpiling, become significant issues in the petroleum industry. Various studies have focused on evaluating the factors affecting emulsion stability and their mechanisms, which hardly explain the relationship with emulsion formation. This study assessed the effects of pH and cations on the transformation of emulsion types and their stability based on the observed emulsion formation process and emulsion particle sizes. It was found that the final W/O emulsions were transformed from water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsions for all brine conditions. At neutral pH, more W/O emulsions were formed through the transformation of W/O/W emulsion, but the high pH broke down most of the W/O/W emulsion into free water and oil. Emulsion particles’ zeta potential or electrokinetics plays a significant role in W/O/W emulsion stability at high pH. The transformation of emulsion types in cation solutions was similar to neutral pH; the amount of W/O emulsion depends on cation species. The W/O/W emulsion stability under different pH in the following order: neutral pH < low pH < high pH, whereas final W/O emulsion stability is as follows: high pH < low pH < neutral pH; MgCl2 < CaCl2 < NaCl. The stability of the emulsion is influenced by the properties of the crude oil, such as viscosity and TAN/TBN ratio, which affect the oil film thickness of the W/O/W. Based on these findings, a stability mechanism is proposed for the emulsion under different pH and cations.

Oil occurrence state and quantity in alkaline lacustrine shale using a high-frequency NMR technique

Complex fluid occurrence states and structures of shale reservoirs greatly affect shale oil productivity. For lacustrine shales with strong heterogeneity, it is important to identify oil movability, occurrence states and pore structures in different lithofacies in order to efficiently develop shale oil. This study combines conventional core analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD), argon ion milled-scanning electron microscopy (AIM-SEM), multiple isothermal stages (MIS) pyrolysis and high-frequency nuclear magnetic resonance (HF-NMR) to create maps for samples in native, saturated, centrifuged, and dried states. A new T1-T2 map interpretation scheme is proposed, and fluid occurrence models for different shale lithofacies are established. Four oil species can be identified on the T1-T2 map. Free oil and adsorbed oil in macropores are located in the centers and edges of intergranular/intercrystalline pores, respectively. Oil in mesopores is located in intragranular/intracrystalline dissolution pores. Adsorbed oil exists in the pores of dispersed organic matter and in the marginal fractures of organic matter laminae. NMR and pyrolysis correlate well in the oil contents that they define. The occurrence state of shale oil in the Fengcheng Fm is closely related to minerals and organic matter. Siliceous minerals are beneficial to the occurrence of free oil that is usually a highly movable. The fluid-holding capacity of calcareous shale is limited, especially for adsorbed oil and restricted oil. Clay minerals (>10%) are not conducive to shale oil enrichment and flow, and mixed shale almost exclusively contains bound water. Organic matter is conducive to increasing oil content and to the movable oil saturation of siliceous shale and mixed shale.

Use of oxidized potato starch as simultaneous fat and casein replacer in analogue mozzarella cheese-Ⅱ: Impact on functional and sensory properties of cheese

The present study investigated the fat and casein replacement potential of native and oxidized potato starches both separately and simultaneously in analogue cheese (AC). The oxidized starch was prepared using hydrogen-peroxide and was found to have 0.0225% carboxyl content which complied with the safety limits prescribed by Food and Agriculture Organization. The potato starches were used to replace 5% fat and 15% casein in AC formulation. The native starch resulted in AC hardness ranging from (321.71–584.60) g with the lowest and highest reported when used for separate replacement of fat and casein, respectively but was still softer than control cheese (made without starches) i.e. 809.43 g. In contrast, oxidized starches’ addition showed similar or better hardness compared to control cheese and also demonstrated higher stretch relative to control and native starch containing AC. The highest stretch of 10.43 cm was exhibited when oxidized starch was used to replace fat in AC. Melt-ability of AC was slightly compromised on addition of starches except native starch which resulted in melt similar to control when used for combined casein and fat replacement. The free oil release was significantly (P < 0.05) curtailed when starches were used in higher quantity for combined replacement of fat/casein. From sensory perspective, panelists were unable to perceive any statistical difference between control and casein/fat replaced ACs. Thus, in a nutshell, oxidized starch showed better and promising results as fat-mimetic and when used for simultaneous casein/fat replacement in AC but cannot be used to imitate casein owing to 31% decline in melt-ability.

Squalene encapsulation by emulsification and freeze-drying process: Effects on bread fortification.

In the present work, squalene (SQ) was encapsulated by a conventional emulsion method using egg white protein nanoparticles (EWPn) as a high molecular weight surfactant, followed by a freeze-drying process to obtain an SQ powder ingredient. EWPn was produced by heat treatment at 85°C, 10min, and pH 10.5. EWPn showed higher emulsifying activity regarding native egg white protein (EWP), highlighting their potential to be used for the SQ encapsulation by an emulsification process. First, we explored the encapsulation conditions using pure corn oil as an SQ carrier. Conditions were oil fraction (0.1-0.2), protein amount (2-5 wt.%), homogenization pressure (100 and 200bar), and maltodextrin amount (10-20 wt.%). At 0.15 oil fraction, 5 wt.%. protein concentration, 200bar homogenization pressure, and 20% maltodextrin, the highest encapsulation efficiency (EE) was reached. Then, according to these conditions, SQ was encapsulated to obtain a freeze-dried powder ingredient for bread formulation. The total and free oil of SQ freeze-dried powder were 24.4%±0.6% and 2.6%±0.1%, respectively, resulting in an EE value of 89.5%±0.5%. The physical, textural, and sensory properties of functional bread were not affected by the addition of 5.0% SQ freeze-dried powder. Finally, the bread loaves showed higher SQ stability than the one formulated with unencapsulated SQ. Hence, the encapsulation system developed was suitable for obtaining functional bread based on SQ fortification.

Towards a free wild-caught fishmeal, fish oil and soy protein in European sea bass diet using by-products from fishery and aquaculture

One of the main strategies to implement the sustainability of aquaculture is by reducing its dependence on feed raw materials derived from wild marine resources, unsustainable land and freshwater use. To totally replace wild-caught fishmeal (FM), fish oil (FO) and soy protein (SP) in European sea bass, five experimental diets were formulated including increasing levels of fishery and aquaculture by-products (control C, 0FM100FO, 0FM0FO, 0FM0FO-50SP, 0FM0FO-0SP). Diets were administered to triplicate fish groups of 50 individuals reared in a recirculation system for 119 days. No major differences (p > 0.05) between C and 0FM100FO were detected in growth (final body weight) and feed efficiency parameters (feed conversion rate, protein efficiency ratio, gross protein efficiency, lipid efficiency ratio, gross lipid efficiency) while they were reduced (p < 0.05) in 0FM0FO, 0FM0FO-50SP, 0FM0FO-0SP compared to C diet. At the end of the growth trial the overall metabolomic profiles of fish muscle were impacted by the diets. In particular, the increase in glycine and phosphocreatine in the muscle of fish fed with diets containing FM and FO by-products, may suggest changes or adaptation in metabolic pattern for energy production at muscular level; results which were also supported by the higher level in plasma creatinine, uric acid and lactate found in C diets. Concerning welfare indicators, overall plasma parameters were in line with the normal range for this species indicating a general optimal welfare condition under all dietary regimes. No effect of diets on overall gut microbiota layout was observed. However, the inclusion of the FM and FO by-product increase the relative abundance of several taxa such as Weissela, Enterococcus, Streptococcus and Bacillus which could potentially support immune system and disease resistance. Overall this study highlighted the possibility of totally replacing wild-caught FM and FO using by-products from fisheries and aquaculture with an only marginal reduction of the overall performance.

Incorporation of wet gases to kerogen in petroleum formation and evolution

The formation mechanism for thermogenic gas remains unresolved. Disputes are focused on: (1) stability barrier for decomposition of oil to gas and wet gas to methane, and (2) inconsistence in dryness ratio (C1/ΣC1–5) between gases produced in pyrolysis experiments and in natural reservoirs. Here, we demonstrate the variation trend of dryness ratio (C1/ΣC1–5) with temperatures and thermal stress levels, and the correlation of dryness ratios with the yields of liquid components (ΣC8+) in confined pyrolysis experiments (gold capsules) of twenty coals. At both heating rates of 2 and 20 °C/h, dryness ratios of gaseous hydrocarbons at first decrease, and then increase with increasing temperatures and thermal stress levels. Dryness ratios of produced gases can be very high in the range of 66.3–95.7 wt% at initial temperature about 334 °C and heating rate of 20 °C/h, corresponding to EASY%Ro 0.56. We suggest that these gases are not the original products released from kerogen, but have been altered via wet gas incorporation to kerogen. Larger oil molecules (C8+) are more competitive in incorporating to kerogen compared with wet gases, and therefore, prohibit wet gas incorporation, leading to the observed trend of gas dryness ratios with increasing temperature and maturity and the negative correlation between dryness ratios and the yields of liquid components (ΣC8+). The conflicting results between the yields and carbon isotopes of wet gases produced in the isothermal confined pyrolysis experiments for coal plus oil can be well interpreted using the reaction mechanism that wet gases incorporate to kerogen while oil components retard this incorporation. Once free oil and wet gas molecules are reincorporated to kerogen, the bound molecules can easily decompose to smaller molecules due to substantial reduction of activation energy for carbon-carbon bond rupture. Petroleum formation from kerogen can be a recycling process: kerogen first releases oil compounds, and then free molecules reincorporate to kerogen and further decompose to smaller molecules, and finally to methane.

Control of micro-wettability of pore-throat on shale oil occurrence: A case study of laminated shale of Permian Lucaogou Formation in Jimusar Sag, Junggar Basin, NW China

The control of micro-wettability of pore-throat on shale oil occurrence in different types of reservoir spaces remains unclear. Take the shale oil reservoir of the Permian Lucaogou Formation in the Jimusar Sag, Junggar Basin as an example, the reservoir space in laminated shale and the control of micro-wettability of pore-throat on shale oil occurrence were studied by using scanning electron microscope (SEM), multi-stage pyrolysis, quantitative fluorescence, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and other techniques. The results show that there are mainly two types of laminated shale in the Lucaogou Formation, namely laminated shale rich in volcanic materials + terrigenous felsic, and laminated shale rich in volcanic materials + carbonate. The former type contains feldspar dissolution pores and intergranular pores, mainly with felsic mineral components around the pore-throats, which are water-wet and control the free shale oil. The latter type contains carbonate intercrystalline pores and organic pores, mainly with oil-wet mineral components around the pore-throats, which control the adsorbed shale oil. The oil-wet mineral components around the pore-throats are conducive to oil accumulation, but reduce the proportion of free oil. In the Lucaogou Formation, free oil, with high maturity and light quality, mainly occurs in the laminated shale rich in volcanic materials + terrigenous felsic.

Rheological and Sensorial Characteristics of the Reformed Ras Cheese Made Using Cheese Trims and Different Starches

The objective was to study the technological suitability of using the Ras cheese trims and starch as casein stabilizer in making novel reformed Ras cheese (RRC) product and to evaluate the effect of two levels of corn, potato, and rice starches whether at the native form or pregelatinized, on the rheological and sensorial properties of that reformed Ras cheese which was supposed to be very close to conventional Ras cheese. Cheese trims were shredded, and table salt was added and kept at 25°C for 24 h. Starch was added in the form of whipped transparent paste, then the mixture was cooked without emulsifying salts to 75°C for 5 minutes at 120 rpm, the cooking temperature was then lowered until reaching 55°C at the same stirring speed, and then, the mixing speed was raised to 1400 rpm for another 1 minute. The molten cheese mass was poured into custom-made moulds. The height from which the cheese was poured into moulds was adapted to be 50 cm from the bottom of the mould. The samples were allowed to set at 5°C for 24 hours. The obtained results indicated that increasing the starch level significantly decreased the values of dry matter, protein, lactose, titratable acidity, water activity (aw), consistency coefficient ( K ), flow behavior index ( n ), Tan δ, hardness, springiness, melt distance, and shredding efficiency and increased the values of ash, pH, critical strain, adhesiveness, and sliceability. The starch source had no significant effect on critical strain, K , Tan δ, and sliceability. The rice starch RRCs were distinguished with the highest significant values of aw, n , cohesiveness, springiness, flavour, and total sensorial scores. The potato starch RRCs had the lowest hardness, fracturability, shreddability, and total sensorial score, as well as the highest melt distance, free oil, and adhesiveness. The corn starch RRCs were characterized with the lowest aw, n , springiness, body, and texture scores, as well as the highest hardness, fracturability, and shreddability. The pregelatinized starch RRCs were associated with increased aw, critical strain, n , Tan δ, fracturability, springiness, melt distance, shredding efficiency, sliceability, and all sensorial characteristics except appearance. The native starch RRCs were characterized with the highest pH, hardness, adhesiveness, free oil, and appearance score values.

Demulsification of peanut emulsion by aqueous enzymatic extraction using a combination of oleic and citric acids

In the present study, the effect of demulsification of peanut emulsion using a combination of oleic and citric acids mechanism was investigated. The free oil yield was 95.87% under optimal conditions. Sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the protein composition of the emulsion treated with citric acid and oleic acid was similar to that of the sample emulsion. Citric acid increased the particle size and ζ-potential of the emulsion. When the content of oleic acid reached 1.5%, the conductivity of the emulsion significantly decreased and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy demonstrated that the intensity of the hydroxyl absorption peak decreased significantly. Gas chromatography analysis revealed that the content of free oil oleic acid increased by only 0.4–0.5%. The phase transformation process during demulsification was investigated by optical and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Oleic acid combined with phospholipids changed the surface hydrophilic–lipophilic balance, and the emulsion changed from oil-in-water to water-in-oil. Small-Angle X-ray scattering analysis deduced that the droplets in the demulsified emulsion were approximately spherical reverse micelles. Results from this study suggest that improvement of combination of oleic and citric acids technology to is important for the large-scale industrial application of an aqueous enzymatic method.

Pore Fractal Characteristics of Lacustrine Shale of Upper Cretaceous Nenjiang Formation from the Songliao Basin, NE China

The evaluation of pore characteristics in lacustrine shales is of significance for shale oil and gas exploration in terrestrial sedimentary basins. However, due to the complex depositional environments, there have been few reports on the quantitative evaluation of lacustrine pores. In this study, we carry out experiments, e.g., scanning electron microscopy (SEM), nitrogen adsorption, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and rock pyrolysis, on sixteen lacustrine shale core samples of the Late Cretaceous Nenjiang Formation (K2n1+2) in the Songliao Basin. At the same time, we bring in the fractal dimensions to quantitatively characterize the pores of shale samples in K2n1+2. The kerogen type of shales in the Nenjiang Formation is mainly type Ⅰ. The shales of K2n1+2 develop a large number of mineral intergranular pores and a small number of organic pores and mineral intragranular pores. The primary minerals of the samples are clay minerals and quartz. The total organic carbon (TOC) has a correlation with the pore physical parameters, whereas the content of minerals does not correlate significantly with pore development. The average pore fractal dimensions obtained from the analysis of nitrogen adsorption data are D1 = 2.5308 and D2 = 2.6557. There is a significant negative correlation between the fractal dimensions (D1 and D2) and the TOC content: the lower the fractal dimensions, the higher the TOC, and the more the free oil. In low maturity shales with higher TOC content, due to hydrocarbon generation, larger pores with a regular shape (small fractal parameters) can be produced, which can store more free oil. The shale reservoir evaluation of K2n1+2 in the Songliao Basin should be focused on shales with higher TOC and lower pore fractal parameters. Our work provides a reference for the shale oil evaluation of K2n1+2 in the Songliao Basin and complements studies on lacustrine pore characteristics.

Uncovering Patterns and Relationships: A Multivariate Data Analysis Case Study

To distinguish between different cheese varieties, a total of 24 commercial cheeses were examined using three distinct methods to assess both general and thermophysical parameters. Rheological properties of different temperatures, stretch ability, melt ability and the formation of free oil were already present in the data. Box plots helped classifying textures of different cheese types on the basis of the general and thermophysical properties. Cluster analysis and multidimensional scaling helped classify the cheese types based on a variety of properties. Principal component analysis was applied, too, to the data set to receive a mapping of the cheese. A reduction of the analyzed parameters to three principal components accounting for 76.3% of the total variation was achieved, indicating that the methods are well suited to characterize the cheese samples. Mapping aids cheese producers to design new products with defined characteristics by affecting the manufacturing protocol. Also it helps cheese dealers to decide whether to buy a new variety of cheese produced in the market. Key Words: Multivariate data, Andrew’s curves, cluster analysis, mantel test, multidimensional scaling, principal component analysis, general properties, thermophysical properties of cheese, R programming.

Evaluating the Stability of Cellulose Nanofiber Pickering Emulsions Using MRI and Relaxometry.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) relaxometry and diffusion methods were used to highlight the instability mechanisms of oil-in-water Pickering emulsions stabilized by cellulose nanofibers (CNFs). Four different Pickering emulsions using different oils (n-dodecane and olive oil) and concentrations of CNFs (0.5 and 1.0wt%) were systematically investigated over a period of one month after emulsification. The separation into a free oil, emulsion layer, and serum layer and the distribution of flocculated/coalesced oil droplets in several hundred micrometers were captured in MR images using fast low-angle shot (FLASH) and rapid acquisition with relaxation enhancement (RARE) sequences. The components of the Pickering emulsions (e.g., free oil, emulsion layer, oil droplets, and serum layer) were observable by different voxelwise relaxation times and apparent diffusion coefficients (ADCs) and reconstructing in the apparent T1, T2, and ADC maps. The mean T1, T2, and ADC of the free oil and serum layer corresponded well with MRI results for pure oils and water, respectively. Comparing the relaxation properties and translational diffusion coefficients of pure dodecane and olive oil obtained from NMR and MRI resulted in similar T1 and ADC but significantly different T2 depending on the sequence used. The diffusion coefficients of olive oil measured by NMR were much slower than dodecane. The ADC of the emulsion layer for dodecane emulsions did not correlate with the viscosity of the emulsions as the CNF concentration increased, suggesting the effects of restricted diffusion of oil/water molecules due to droplet packing.