Free Electron Laser Applications Research Articles

Helium-electrospray improves sample delivery in X-ray single-particle imaging experiments

Imaging the structure and observing the dynamics of isolated proteins using single-particle X-ray diffractive imaging (SPI) is one of the potential applications of X-ray free-electron lasers (XFELs). Currently, SPI experiments on isolated proteins are limited by three factors: low signal strength, limited data and high background from gas scattering. The last two factors are largely due to the shortcomings of the aerosol sample delivery methods in use. Here we present our modified electrospray ionization (ESI) source, which we dubbed helium-ESI (He-ESI). With it, we increased particle delivery into the interaction region by a factor of 10, for 26 nm-sized biological particles, and decreased the gas load in the interaction chamber corresponding to an 80% reduction in gas scattering when compared to the original ESI. These improvements have the potential to significantly increase the quality and quantity of SPI diffraction patterns in future experiments using He-ESI, resulting in higher-resolution structures.

Principle of Free-electron Laser and Applications in Medical Research and Lithography

In recent years, as a breakthrough light source technology, free-electron laser (FEL) has the unique advantage of producing coherent radiation with high brightness, high energy, good directivity and excellent monochromaticity. With this in mind, this study will systematical discuss the historical development of FEL technology, from Einstein's laser theory to Dr. Maiman's first commercial laser, as well as the birth and evolution of FEL. To be specific, the basic principles and construction of FEL technology will be discussed in detail, including key components such as electron sources, electron accelerators, and oscillators. The application of free electron laser (FEL) technology in medicine and lithography will also be demonstrated in this paper. According to the analysis, the current limitations of the state-of-art facilities as well as the future development trends and improvements for FEL system will be clarified based on the evaluations. Overall, these results shed light on guiding further exploration of FEL techniques.

First operation of the JUNGFRAU detector in 16-memory cell mode at European XFEL

The JUNGFRAU detector is a well-established hybrid pixel detector developed at the Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) designed for free-electron laser (FEL) applications. JUNGFRAU features a charge-integrating dynamic gain switching architecture, with three different gain stages and 75 μm pixel pitch. It is widely used at the European X-ray Free-Electron Laser (EuXFEL), a facility which produces high brilliance X-ray pulses at MHz repetition rate in the form of bursts repeating at 10 Hz. In nominal configuration, the detector utilizes only a single memory cell and supports data acquisition up to 2 kHz. This constrains the operation of the detector to a 10 Hz frame rate when combined with the pulsed train structure of the EuXFEL. When configured in so-called burst mode, the JUNGFRAU detector can acquire a series of images into sixteen memory cells at a maximum rate of around 150 kHz. This acquisition scheme is better suited for the time structure of the X-rays as well as the pump laser pulses at the EuXFEL. To ensure confidence in the use of the burst mode at EuXFEL, a wide range of measurements have been performed to characterize the detector, especially to validate the detector alibration procedures. In particular, by analyzing the detector response to varying photon intensity (so called ‘intensity scan’), special attention was given to the characterization of the transitions between gain stages. The detector was operated in both dynamic gain switching and fixed gain modes. Results of these measurements indicate difficulties in the characterization of the detector dynamic gain switching response while operated in burst mode, while no major issues have been found with fixed gain operation. Based on this outcome, fixed gain operation mode with all the memory cells was used during two experiments at EuXFEL, namely in serial femtosecond protein crystallography and Kossel lines measurements. The positive outcome of these two experiments validates the good results previously obtained, and opens the possibility for a wider usage of the detector in burst operation mode, although compromises are needed on the dynamic range.

The electron beam of the linear induction accelerator with kiloampere current as a driver for the submillimeter free electron laser

The project of a submillimeter free electron laser (FEL) based on a relativistic electron beam (REB) generated in a linear induction accelerator (LIA) was proposed at the BINP SB RAS together with the IAP RAS. According to our theoretical analysis, the electron beam generated in the LIA (energy \({{E}_{e}} = 5{\text{--}}10\) MeV, current \({{I}_{b}} = 1{\text{--}}2\) kA, normalized emittance \({{\varepsilon }_{n}}\) ~ 1100 π · mm · mrad) is a suitable driver for generating sub-GW pulses of coherent EM radiation in submm range (0.3–1 THz). The main proposals for the creation of the FEL based on the electron beam generated in the LIA are presented, the main project tasks are outlined, and the proposed methods for their solution are described. The results of electron-optical experiments on the formation of an electron beam intended for FEL applications are presented.

Sub-femtosecond time-resolved measurements of electron bunches with a C-band radio-frequency deflector in x-ray free-electron lasers

Time-resolved diagnostics are fundamental for x-ray free-electron lasers (FELs). Radio-frequency (RF) transverse deflector structures (TDSs) are typically employed to characterize the temporal properties of the electron beams driving FELs. In this article, we present time-resolved measurements with a resolution below one femtosecond using a C-band RF TDS at SwissFEL, the x-ray FEL facility at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Switzerland. The sub-femtosecond resolution is partially achieved due to an optimized optics setup and fits the expected values, showing a good understanding of our models. Measurements with a sub-femtosecond resolution are of crucial importance for ultra-fast x-ray FEL applications.

Cadmium Magnesium Telluride for Next-Generation X-Ray Free Electron Laser, Synchrotron, and Many Other Applications

We developed a picosecond photodetector based on our Bridgman-grown and specially engineered cadmium magnesium telluride (Cd <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\mathrm {1-x}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> MgxTe) single crystal that is sensitive to both optical and X-ray pulses for coarse timing in free-electron laser applications. Cd <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\mathrm {1-x}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> MgxTe is a widebandgap semiconductor with potential applications, not only in optoelectronics, but also in particle physics as an intense pulse radiation detector for bremsstrahlung, X-ray/gamma-ray radiation, thermal neutrons, and medical imaging. For femtosecond optical and X-ray cross-correlation, the material must have a very short lifetime, a condition that is opposite to that required for nuclear spectroscopy applications. At the same time, the material also needs to have a very low bulk leakage current, in the 10–90 nA range for voltages to even 1000 V. Hence, the ability to tailor or engineer the material is very crucial. Picosecond response and the crystal growth of this specially engineered Cd <inline-formula xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink"> <tex-math notation="LaTeX">$_{\mathrm {1-x}}$ </tex-math></inline-formula> MgxTe material are presented. Other characterization and transient measurements are discussed along with room-temperature semiconductor detector performance for other nuclear radiation detection applications.

Fast shaping control of x ray beams using a closed-loop adaptive bimorph deformable mirror

High-speed adaptive correction of optics, based on real-time metrology feedback, has benefitted numerous scientific communities for several decades. However, it remains a major technological challenge to extend this concept into the hard x ray regime due to the necessity for active mirrors with single-digit nanometer height errors relative to a range of aspheric forms. We have developed a high-resolution, real-time, closed-loop “adaptive” optical system for synchrotron and x ray free electron laser (XFEL) applications. After calibration of the wavefront using x ray speckle scanning, the wavefront diagnostic was removed from the x ray beam path. Non-invasive control of the size and shape of the reflected x ray beam was then demonstrated by driving a piezoelectric deformable bimorph mirror at ∼ 1 H z . Continuous feedback was provided by a 20 kHz direct measurement of the optical surface with picometer sensitivity using an array of interferometric sensors. This enabled a non-specialist operator to reproduce a series of pre-defined x ray wavefronts, including focused or non-Gaussian profiles, such as flattop intensity or multiple split peaks with controllable separation and relative amplitude. Such changes can be applied in any order and in rapid succession without the need for invasive wavefront diagnostic sensors that block the x ray beam for scientific usage. These innovations have the potential to profoundly change how x ray focusing elements are utilized at synchrotron radiation and XFEL sources and provide unprecedented dynamic control of photon beams to aid scientific discoveries in a wide range of disciplines.

Cesium intercalation of graphene: A 2D protective layer on alkali antimonide photocathode

Alkali antimonide photocathodes have wide applications in free-electron lasers and electron cooling. The short lifetime of alkali antimonide photocathodes necessitates frequent replacement of the photocathodes during a beam operation. Furthermore, exposure to mediocre vacuum causes loss of photocathode quantum efficiency due to the chemical reaction with residual gas molecules. Theoretical analyses have shown that covering an alkali antimonide photocathode with a monolayer graphene or hexagonal boron nitride protects it in a coarse vacuum environment due to the inhibition of chemical reactions with residual gas molecules. Alkali antimonide photocathodes require an ultra-high vacuum environment, and depositing a monolayer 2D material on it poses a serious challenge. In the present work, we have incorporated a novel method known as intercalation, in which alkali atoms pass through the defects of a graphene thin film to create a photocathode material underneath. Initially, Sb was deposited on a Si substrate, and a monolayer graphene was transferred on top of the Sb film. Heat cleaning around 550–600 °C effectively removed the Sb oxides, leaving metallic Sb underneath the graphene layer. Depositing Cs on top of a monolayer graphene enabled the intercalation process. Atomic force microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, low energy electron microscopy, and x-ray diffraction measurements were performed to evaluate photocathode formation underneath the monolayer graphene. Our analysis shows that Cs penetrated the graphene and reacted with Sb and formed Cs3Sb.

Improved Algorithms for Calculating the Space-Charge Field in Vacuum Devices

The space-charge field (SCF) is a key factor in vacuum electronic devices, accelerators, free electron lasers and plasma systems, etc. The calculation of the SCF is very important since it has a great influence on the precision of numerical simulation results. However, calculating the SCF usually takes a lot of time, especially when the number of simulated particles is large. In this paper, we used a vectorization, parallelization and truncation method to optimize the calculation of the SCF based on the traditional calculation algorithms. To verify the validity of the optimized SCF calculation algorithm, it was applied in the performance simulation of a millimeter wave traveling wave tube. The results showed that the time cost was reduced by three orders compared with conventional treatment. The proposed algorithm also has great potential applications in free electron lasers, accelerators and plasma systems.

Enhancement of Smith-Purcell radiation from cylindrical gratings by quasi-bound states in the continuum.

Smith-Purcell radiation (SPR) is an important means of generating terahertz waves, and the enhancement of SPR is an attractive topic nowadays. Inspired by the phenomenon of special SPR, where the enhancement is achieved by using a high-duty-cycle grating, we describe a new, to the best of our knowledge, but more effective approach to this challenging problem. By deriving a simple analytical solution for the SPR from an annular electron beam passing through a cylindrical metallic grating, we show that the inverse structure, a low-duty-cycle grating can exhibit rather high SPR efficiencies in the presence of quasi-bound states in the continuum (quasi-BICs). The analytical prediction is supported by particle-in-cell simulations, which show that the quasi-BICs can enhance the superradiant SPR generated by a train of electron bunches by orders of magnitude. These results present an interesting mechanism for enhancing the SPR from metallic gratings, and may find applications in terahertz free-electron lasers.

Enhanced Smith–Purcell radiation from bound states in the continuum of metallic gratings

The enhancement of Smith–Purcell radiation (SPR) produced by electrons moving closely to a grating is a longstanding topic of interest. Here, we systematically investigate the resonant enhancement of SPR for planar metallic gratings. Using an analytic solution for the amplitude of SPR, we show that metallic gratings with a small dutycycle support two type of bound states in the continuum (BICs), i.e. symmetry-protected BICs and accidental BICs, both of which enable the SPR to be enhanced by orders of magnitude at the resonant frequency. The required electron energy for the excitation of BICs can be reduced by employing a higher-order diffraction wave for SPR. Our results present a mechanism for enhancing the SPR produced by metallic gratings, and may find applications in free-electron lasers.

Quantifying electron cascade size in various irradiated materials for free-electron laser applications.

Studying electron- and X-ray-induced electron cascades in solids is essential for various research areas at free-electron laser facilities, such as X-ray imaging, crystallography, pulse diagnostics or X-ray-induced damage. To better understand the fundamental factors that define the duration and spatial size of such cascades, this work investigates the electron propagation in ten solids relevant for the applications of X-ray lasers: Au, B4C, diamond, Ni, polystyrene, Ru, Si, SiC, Si3N4 and W. Using classical Monte Carlo simulation in the atomic approximation, we study the dependence of the cascade size on the incident electron or photon energy and on the target parameters. The results show that an electron-induced cascade is systematically larger than a photon-induced cascade. Moreover, in contrast with the common assumption, the maximal cascade size does not necessarily coincide with the electron range. It was found that the cascade size can be controlled by careful selection of the photon energy for a particular material. Photon energy, just above an ionization potential, can essentially split the absorbed energy between two electrons (photo- and Auger), reducing their initial energy and thus shrinking the cascade size. This analysis suggests a way of tailoring the electron cascades for applications requiring either small cascades with a high density of excited electrons or large-spread cascades with lower electron densities.

Generation of highly mutually coherent hard-x-ray pulse pairs with an amplitude-splitting delay line

Beam splitters and delay lines are among the key building blocks of modern-day optical laser technologies. Progress in x-ray free electron laser source development and applications over the past decade is calling for their counter part operating in the Angstrom wavelength regime. Recent efforts in x-ray optics development have demonstrated relatively stable delay lines that most often adopted the division of wavefront approach for the beam splitting and recombination configuration. However, the two recombined beams have yet to achieve sufficient mutual coherence to enable applications such as interferometry, correlation spectroscopy, and nonlinear spectroscopy. We present the first experimental realization of the generation of highly mutually coherent pulse pairs using an amplitude-split delay line design based on transmission grating beam splitters and channel-cut crystal optic delay lines. The performance of the prototype system was analyzed in the context of x-ray coherent scattering and correlation spectroscopy, where we obtained nearly identical high-contrast speckle patterns from both branches. We show in addition the high level of dynamical stability during continuous delay scans, a capability essential for high sensitivity ultra-fast measurements.

Numerical characterization of quasi-steady thermal load for thin crystal at cryogenic temperature with nondiffusive heat transfer

With dramatically improved brightness and repetition rate, the thermal load for crystal optics in x-ray free-electron laser applications has also significantly increased. To mitigate the thermal load, one effective method is cryogenic cooling. However, the emerging nondiffusive heat transfer phenomenon at cryogenic temperature may cause design failure if overlooked. To evaluate the optical performance of thin crystal optics under thermal load at cryogenic temperature, an integrated numerical tool is presented and applied to characterize the thermal load on thin crystals with nondiffusive phenomena accounted. Significant thermally induced distortion of the rocking curve is observed from numerical simulation, leading to potential seed power reduction in hard x-ray self-seeding application. Cryogenic cooling is confirmed necessary by simulation to handle the thermal load at high repetition rate operation.

Importance of bulk excitations and coherent electron-photon-phonon scattering in photoemission from PbTe(111): Ab initio theory with experimental comparisons

This paper presents a fully ab initio many-body photoemission framework that includes coherent three-body electron-photon-phonon scattering to predict the transverse momentum distributions and the mean transverse energies (MTEs) of bulk photoelectrons from single-crystal photocathodes. The need to develop such a theory stems from the lack of studies that provide complete understanding of the underlying fundamental processes governing the transverse momentum distribution of photoelectrons emitted from single crystals. For example, initial predictions based on density-functional theory calculations of effective electron masses suggested that the (111) surface of PbTe would produce very small MTEs $(\ensuremath{\le}15 \mathrm{meV})$, whereas our experiments yielded MTEs 10 to 20 times larger than these predictions and also exhibited a lower photoemission threshold than predicted. The ab initio framework presented in this paper correctly reproduces both the magnitude of the MTEs from our measurements in PbTe(111) and the observed photoemission below the predicted threshold. Our results show that both photoexcitations into states that propagate in the bulk of the material and coherent many-body electron-photon-phonon scattering processes, which initial predictions ignored, play surprisingly important roles in photoemission from PbTe(111). Finally, from the lessons learned, we recommend a procedure for rapid computational screening of potential single-crystal photocathodes for applications in next-generation ultrafast electron diffraction and x-ray free-electron lasers, which will enable significant advances in condensed matter research.

Longitudinal phase space improvement of a continuous-wave photoinjector toward X-ray free-electron laser application

The electron source still remains a major challenge for continuous-wave (CW) X-ray free-electron lasers (FELs). In this paper, we study the feasibility of an injection line based on a DC and superconducting radio-frequency (SRF) combined photocathode injector. We present a detailed investigation on the longitudinal phase space evolution of the electron beam along the injection line. We also analyze the main issues determining the high-order energy spread and current skewness. Based on the analysis, we propose to use a harmonic cavity as the buncher for the injection line. Simulation shows that an extracted electron beam with a normalized RMS emittance of 0.37 μm, an RMS bunch length of 1.0 mm, a high-order RMS energy spread of 2.75 keV, and a current skewness of 0 can be obtained at the bunch charge of 100 pC. This study is meaningful to the design of the injection lines for short-wavelength CW FELs, including those based on normal-conducting very-high-frequency (VHF) guns or DC guns.

New mounting mechanism for cryogenically cooled thin crystal x-ray optics in high brightness high repetition rate free-electron laser applications.

We present a new mounting design for thin crystal optics with cryogenic cooling compatibility. We design a crystal geometry with two symmetric strain-relief cuts to mitigate the distortion from mounting. We propose to sputter gold onto the crystal and the holder to ensure excellent thermal contact and sufficient mechanical bonding. The system is analyzed and verified by finite element analysis to have an acceptable level of strain due to mounting. The thermal performance of this mounting scheme is validated in an example cryogenic cooling system and the results indicate a tolerance of power density up to ∼1 kW/mm2.

Versatile, high brightness, cryogenic photoinjector electron source

Since the introduction of the radio-frequency (rf) photoinjector electron source over thirty years ago, peak performance demands have dictated the use of high accelerating electric fields. With recent strong advances in obtainable field values, attendant increases in beam brightness are expected to be dramatic. In this article, we examine the implementation of very high gradient acceleration in a high frequency, cryogenic rf photoinjector. We discuss in detail the effects of introducing, through an optimized rf cavity shape, rich spatial harmonic content in the accelerating modes in this device. Higher spatial harmonics give useful, enhanced linear focusing effects, as well as potentially deleterious nonlinear transverse forces. They also serve to strongly increase the ratio of average accelerating field to peak surface field, thus aiding in managing power and dark current-related challenges. We investigate two scenarios which are aimed at unique exploitation of the capabilities of this source. First, we investigate the obtaining of extremely high six-dimensional brightness for advanced free-electron laser applications. We also examine the use of a magnetized photocathode in the device for producing unprecedented low asymmetric emittance, high-current electron beams that reach linear collider-compatible performance. As both of the scenarios demand an advanced, compact solenoid design, we describe a novel cryogenic solenoid system. With the high field rf and magnetostatic structures introduced, we analyze the collective beam dynamics in these systems through theory and multi-particle simulations, including a particular emphasis on granularity effects associated with microscopic Coulomb interactions.

Study on the Free Electron Laser and Condensed Matter Physics based on Computer

With the rapid development of computer technology, laser has been widely used in various fields of scientific research. However, with the development of computer technology, the shortcomings of traditional lasers are more and more obvious. Generally, lasers only work in different wavebands, which can not adjust the laser energy. Therefore, the peak power and average power of the laser are not high. The output power of different wavebands varies greatly, which increases the omplexity of the experiment. Therefore, the low power and non adjustable frequency limit the depth and breadth of application. In the dynamics study of condensed matter physics, the energy of many elementary excitations in condensed matter, such as acoustic phonon, magneton, polaron and so on, is in the far-infrared region. In recent years, a new type of laser source, free electron laser (FEL), with adjustable frequency and high power, has been developed in the world, which opens up a new way for the study of condensed matter physics. Firstly, this paper analyzes the related concepts. Then, the classification of FEL is analyzed. Finally, the application of FEL in condensed matter physics is proposed.

Application of mid-infrared free-electron laser for structural analysis of biological materials.

A mid-infrared free-electron laser (MIR-FEL) is a synchrotron-radiation-based femto- to pico-second pulse laser. It has unique characteristics such as variable wavelengths in the infrared region and an intense pulse energy. So far, MIR-FELs have been utilized to perform multi-photon absorption reactions against various gas molecules and protein aggregates in physical chemistry and biomedical fields. However, the applicability of MIR-FELs for the structural analysis of solid materials is not well recognized in the analytical field. In the current study, an MIR-FEL is applied for the first time to analyse the internal structure of biological materials by using fossilized inks from cephalopods as themodel sample. Two kinds of fossilized inks that were collected from different strata were irradiated at the dry state by tuning the oscillation wavelengths of the MIR-FEL to the phosphoryl stretching mode of hydroxyapatite (9.6 µm) and to the carbonyl stretching mode of melanin (5.8 µm), and the subsequent structural changes in those materials were observed by using infrared microscopy and far-infrared spectroscopy. The structural variation of these biological fossils is discussed based on the infrared-absorption spectral changes that were enhanced by the MIR-FEL irradiation, and the potential use of MIR-FELs for the structural evaluation of biomaterials is suggested.