Free-electron Laser Operation Research Articles

Enhanced X-ray free-electron laser performance with optical klystron and helical undulators.

This article presents a demonstration of the improved performance of an X-ray free-electron laser (FEL) using the optical klystron mechanism and helical undulator configuration, in comparison with the common planar undulator configuration without optical klystron. The demonstration was carried out at Athos, the soft X-ray beamline of SwissFEL. Athos has variable-polarization undulators, and small magnetic chicanes placed between every two undulators to fully exploit the optical klystron. It was found that, for wavelengths of 1.24 nm and 3.10 nm, the required length to achieve FEL saturation is reduced by about 35% when using both the optical klystron and helical undulators, with each effect accounting for about half of the improvement. Moreover, it is shown that a helical undulator configuration provides a 20% to 50% higher pulse energy than planar undulators. This work represents an important step towards more compact and high-power FELs, rendering this key technology more efficient, affordable and accessible to the scientific community.

Multi-functional gas cell in the vacuum ultraviolet free-electron laser beamline.

A long gas cell, filled with noble gas, is typically positioned between the undulator and the first mirror in the free-electron laser (FEL) beamline to attenuate the laser power as required by the end-stations. In addition to attenuation, the gas cell also serves important functions in various applications, such as spectrometer calibration, resolving power evaluation during beamline commissioning, and filtering of third harmonic in FEL operations. These functions of the gas cell have been successfully tested and implemented at the Dalian Coherent Light Source, a vacuum ultraviolet FEL facility located in Dalian, China. The resolving power of higher than 5000 has been obtained, and accurate calibration has been completed using the gas cell. During operation, the third harmonic of the FEL was attenuated by approximately one order of magnitude with almost the same power of the fundamental. This greatly improved the signal-to-noise ratio at the end-stations.

Exploring mounting solutions for cryogenically cooled thin crystal optics in high power density x-ray free electron lasers.

This study investigates three mounting methods-clamping, soldering, and a hybrid clamping-soldering approach-for cryogenically cooled thin diamond crystals crucial to stable operation of X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) systems. While clamping methods exhibit temperature resilience and flexibility, meticulous design is required to prevent stress-induced warping and reduce thermal contact area. Soldering methods offer reliable mechanical and thermal bonding but encounter challenges due to the coefficient of thermal expansion mismatch at cryogenic temperatures. The hybrid method, integrating clamping and soldering with strain relief cuts, effectively mitigates overall distortion caused by mounting and XFEL thermal loads. These findings offer a novel mounting solution for high-performance x-ray optics in XFEL research and applications, ensuring stability and optimal functionality in cryogenic conditions.

Unaveraged simulations of a cavity based free electron laser

The computer simulation of a cavity-based (oscillator) Free-Electron Laser (FEL) requires the modelling of both the electron-light interaction in the FEL undulator and the radiation propagation within the optical cavity. The unaveraged 3D FEL simulation code Puffin has been coupled with the Optical Propagation Code (OPC) to allow a broadband, high temporal-resolution cavity FEL to be modelled for the first time. This requires the translation of the radiation field formats between the Puffin and OPC codes. This translation is described and the coupled codes are then used to model an example of a Regenerative Amplifier FEL operating in the VUV.

Plasma-based particle sources

High-brightness particle beams generated by advanced accelerator concepts have the potential to become an essential part of future accelerator technology. In particular, high-gradient accelerators can generate and rapidly accelerate particle beams to relativistic energies. The rapid acceleration and strong confining fields can minimize irreversible detrimental effects to the beam brightness that occur at low beam energies, such as emittance growth or pulse elongation caused by space charge forces. Due to the high accelerating gradients, these novel accelerators are also significantly more compact than conventional technology. Advanced accelerators can be extremely variable and are capable of generating particle beams with vastly different properties using the same driver and setup with only modest changes to the interaction parameters. So far, efforts have mainly been focused on the generation of electron beams, but there are concepts to extend the sources to generate spin-polarized electron beams or positron beams.The beam parameters of these particle sources are largely determined by the injection and subsequent acceleration processes. Although, over the last decade there has been significant progress, the sources are still lacking a sufficiently high 6-dimensional (D) phase-space density that includes small transverse emittance, small energy spread and high charge, and operation at high repetition rate. This is required for future particle colliders with a sufficiently high luminosity or for more near-term applications, such as enabling the operation of free-electron lasers (FELs) in the X-ray regime. Major research and development efforts are required to address these limitations in order to realize these approaches for a front-end injector for a future collider or next-generation light sources. In particular, this includes methods to control and manipulate the phase-space and spin degrees-of-freedom of ultrashort plasma-based electron bunches with high accuracy, and methods that increase efficiency and repetition rate. These efforts also include the development of high-resolution diagnostics, such as full 6D phase-space measurements, beam polarimetry and high-fidelity simulation tools.A further increase in beam luminosity can be achieve through emittance damping. Emittance cooling via the emission of synchrotron radiation using current technology requires kilometer-scale damping rings. For future colliders, the damping rings might be replaced by a substantially more compact plasma-based approach. Here, plasma wigglers with significantly stronger magnetic fields are used instead of permanent-magnet based wigglers to achieve similar damping performance but over a two orders of magnitude reduced length.

Numerical Simulation of an Electron Beam for Magnetic Bunch Compressor Commissioning at PITZ

A THz free electron laser (FEL) prototype has been developed at the Photo Injector Test Facility at DESY in Zeuthen (PITZ) for obtaining high intensity radiation for THz-pump and X-ray-probe experiments at the European XFEL. In this development, a magnetic chicane was recently installed to optimize the THz FEL performance. The aim of this study is to investigate the beam dynamics in the chicane for a trajectory commissioning by tracking the electron beam via ASTRA using a 3-dimensional (3-D) magnetic field of the chicane simulated with CST-EM Studio. The simulated results indicate the possibility to obtain a minimum-momentum dispersion of an electron beam after chicane with the high bunches charge of electron beam transportation.

Tailoring of the longitudinal phase space for improved Free-Electron Laser performance

Free-electron lasers are capable of producing high-quality radiation in a wide wavelength range and at very high power and brilliance. To reach improved performance especially regarding coherence, bandwidth and wavelength stability, different seeding techniques are often required. However, a successful implementation of seeding typically demands a very high-quality electron beam, in terms of energy distribution and emittance. Techniques like Echo-Enabled Harmonic Generation (EEHG) and High-Brightness SASE (HB-SASE) require, or are significantly enhanced, by a flat distribution of particles in the longitudinal phase space. In this paper we describe how the initially chirped longitudinal phase space in the proposed Soft X-ray Laser (SXL) at the MAX IV laboratory can be tailored by first overcompressing and then de-chirping the electron pulse. We also show that it is possible to retain the properties of the electron bunch and how such an enhanced distribution can drive HB-SASE “seeding”, resulting in a significantly reduced bandwidth and a better wavelength stability.

Analysis and 3D Imaging of Multidimensional Complex THz Fields and 3D Diagnostics Using 3D Visualization via Light Field

We present a numerical platform for 3D imaging and general analysis of multidimensional complex THz fields. A special 3D visualization is obtained by converting electromagnetic (EM) radiation to a light field via the Wigner distribution function, which is known for discovering (revealing) hidden details. This allows for 3D diagnostics using the simple techniques of geometrical optics, which significantly facilitates the whole analysis. This simulation was applied to a complex field composed of complex beams emitted as ultra-narrow femtosecond pulses. A method was developed for the generation of phase–amplitude and spectral characteristics of complex multimode radiation in a free-electron laser (FEL) operating under various parameters. The tool was successful at diagnosing an early design of the transmission line (TL) of an innovative accelerator at the Schlesinger Family Center for Compact Accelerators, Radiation Sources, and Applications.

Sub-wavelength effects in a free electron laser oscillator.

Previous simulation studies of cavity based free electron lasers (FELs) have utilised models which average the optical field in the FEL interaction over an integer number of radiation wavelengths. In this paper, two unaveraged simulation codes, OPC and Puffin, are combined to enable modelling, for the first time, of a cavity based FEL at the sub-wavelength scale. This enables modelling of effects such as coherent spontaneous emission from the electron beam and sub-wavelength cavity length detuning. A cavity FEL operating in the mid-infrared is modelled and it is shown that, for small sub-wavelength cavity detunings, the FEL can preferentially lase at the third harmonic of the fundamental FEL wavelength. This novel result suggests other modes of operation may be possible and opens up cavity-based FEL operation to investigation of further, potentially useful, modes of operation.

Dissociative photoionisation of O2 with tunable 10, 20 and 30 eV photons

Atomic oxygen ions, O+, created by photoexcitation of a cold supersonic beam of O2 by the output of a free-electron laser operating in the 128–122 nm region are detected by sliced velocity map imaging. Analysis of the richly structured high resolution kinetic energy and angular distributions obtained show that O+ production is due to the second and third harmonics present in the laser output. Excellent slicing and optimal velocity mapping allows separation of overlapping signal from dissociative photoionisation processes driven by 20 eV versus 30 eV photons. A two-colour experiment combining the free electron laser and a nanosecond dye laser output at 225.6 nm allowed detection of direct photodissociation of the metastable O2 + b 4Σg - (v = 0–4) state is observed and assigned to a parallel b 4Σg - – (c 4Σu -)4s Rydberg transition followed by dissociation to O+ (4S) + O(3P2).

Generating Coherent Phonon Waves in Narrow-Band Materials: A Twisted Bilayer Graphene Phaser

Twisted bilayer graphene (TBG) exhibits extremely low Fermi velocities for electrons, with the speed of sound surpassing the Fermi velocity. This regime enables the use of TBG for amplifying vibrational waves of the lattice through stimulated emission, following the same principles of operation of free-electron lasers. Our Letter proposes a lasing mechanism relying on the slow-electron bands to produce a coherent beam of acoustic phonons. We propose a device based on undulated electrons in TBG, which we dub the phaser. The device generates phonon beams in a terahertz (THz) frequency range, which can then be used to produce THz electromagnetic radiation. The ability to generate coherent phonons in solids breaks new ground in controlling quantum memories, probing quantum states, realizing nonequilibrium phases of matter, and designing new types of THz optical devices.

Multivariable virtual diagnostics and tuning of beam positioning using machine learning

In many experiments, such as Thomson scattering experiments, beam position sensitivity is encountered when using the Tsinghua Thomson Scattering X-ray Source (TTX). In each experiment, the position of the beam is manually tuned, a process that requires several minutes to complete. Moreover, the beam position drifts over time. In addition, in some situations, such as free electron laser operation, the beam position will be affected; thus, a downstream beam position monitor (BPM) cannot offer a reliable beam position. In this study, machine learning is used to perform virtual diagnostics and tuning of the beam position of TTX. For universality, 20 independent parameters that may affect the beam position are imported and tuned over a large range. While universal virtual diagnostics can be achieved using this process, the parameters mutually influence each other, and it is difficult to determine their valid combined range, leading to low data validity; consequently, in some situations, the beam will be lost.A bagged tree classification model is trained to determine the combined range of the parameters. This greatly improves the experimental efficiency from 38% to 64%. The final accuracy achieved using this classification model is 95%. When the beam perturbations have a root mean square error (RMSE) of approximately 0.096 mm, the virtual diagnostic accuracy is 0.13 mm in the range of 20 mm; thus, the normalized root mean square error (NRMSE) is 0.65%. This can satisfy most demands on TTX. In addition, it is experimentally demonstrated that the beam can be tuned to the desired position with an RMSE of 0.03 mm using this model.

Near-Threshold Photoemission from Graphene-Coated Cu (110)

The brightness of electron beams emitted from photocathode sources plays a critical role in determining the performance of x-ray free-electron lasers and ultrafast electron-diffraction applications. In order to achieve the maximum brightness, the electrons need to be emitted from a photocathode with the lowest-possible mean transverse energy (MTE). Recent investigations have shown that capping a $\mathrm{Cu}$(110) photocathode with a monolayer of graphene can protect the quantum efficiency (QE) from long-term exposure to varying vacuum conditions. However, there have been no studies that investigate the effects that a monolayer of graphene has on the MTE. Here, we report on measurements of a graphene-coated $\mathrm{Cu}$(110) single crystal near the photoemission threshold for room and liquid-nitrogen temperatures. At room temperature, a minimum MTE of 25 meV is measured at 295 nm. At liquid-nitrogen temperatures, a minimum MTE of 9 meV is measured at the photoemission threshold of 290 nm.

Analytical study of higher harmonic bunching and matrix formalism in linear high-gain free-electron laser model

Short-wavelength single-pass free electron lasers (FEL) are capable of generating transverse-coherent and high-power radiations. Compared with the self-amplified spontaneous emission (SASE) FEL scheme, seeded FEL schemes can, in principle, improve the longitudinal coherence of radiation pulses. In recent years, the research community has pursued the realization of high-repetition-rate (MHz) and high-average-power (kW) seeded FELs. To alleviate the requirements of external seeding lasers, many novel seeding schemes have been proposed, which are currently limited by the state-of-the-art laser systems. An analytical study of a recently proposed seeding scheme based on direct-amplification-enabled harmonic generation (DEHG) is presented herein. In contrast to the complete numerical simulations and optimization design, this study starts from one-dimensional FEL equations of motion and derives an analytical formula for the harmonic bunching factor at the chicane exit after the electron beam traverses the modulator undulator. Additionally, to obtain a quick estimate of downstream high-gain FEL performance, we constructed a linear high-gain FEL transport matrix, including the three-dimensional effects incorporated by the Ming-Xie formula. As an application of the analytical formulas, we discuss three different cases for designing and optimizing the seeding scheme. We expect this analytical approach to shed light on seeding designs that aim to produce the desired high-brightness mirobunched electron beam.

Improving the Performance of an Ultrashort Soft X-ray Free-Electron Laser via Attosecond Afterburners

In this study, we implement attosecond afterburners in an ultrashort soft X-ray free-electron laser (FEL) to improve the performance of generating attosecond pulses. In this scheme, the FEL pulse produced in the normal radiator section is dumped while the well bunched electron beam is reserved and reused in downstream afterburners. Subsequently, radiation in the afterburners gains rapidly as the bunching factor in the current spike is large, making the radiation pulse much shorter and cleaner than that from a normal radiator. Multi-shot simulations are carried out to demonstrate the performance and stability of the proposed technique.

Visualization of an Ultra-Short THz Beams with a Radiation Propagation Analysis of the Novel Israeli Free Electron Laser

Tera Hertz radiation is currently the most researched and useful area in almost all fields of science and industry. The additional challenge is expressed in the form of radiation, pulses of femto-seconds in length are supposed to pass through a transmission line (TL) most efficiently, at a wide range of frequencies. These are complex beams, which make up the electromagnetic (EM) field, represented in the frequency domain in terms of cavity eigenmodes. A simulation allows to describe of the phase-amplitude and spectral characteristics of multimode radiation free-electron laser (FEL) operating in various operational parameters. The analysis is performed through the transmission of optical rays accurately, with each ray being characterized by amplitude, position, and angle in 3D space. A light field representation of a complex EM field is obtained via Wigner Distribution Function, which allows to describe of the dynamics of field evolution in future propagation by a ray tracing (RT) method. The final diagnostics will determine the design of the TL to be assembled in an innovative accelerator under construction at the Schlesinger Family Center for Compact Accelerators, Radiation Sources, and Applications.

Novel bunch compressor chicane: The five-bend chicane

Four dipole magnetic chicanes are typically used in high-performance accelerators to compress electron bunches to their final peak currents but subject the beam to emittance dilution due to the coherent synchrotron radiation (CSR) effect. In this paper, we present a new magnetic bunch compressor geometry designed to locally suppress the CSR-induced emittance degradation called the five-bend chicane. We will include a simulation study comparing a five-bend chicane to the nominal four-bend chicane of the LCLS-II-HE's second bunch compressor (BC2) beamline. The study will consist of emittance and energy spread growth due to CSR using a one-dimensional, elegant, and two-dimensional, csrtrack, CSR algorithm in free space, and the free-electron laser performance using genesis.

Physically and chemically smooth cesium-antimonide photocathodes on single crystal strontium titanate substrates

The performance of x-ray free electron lasers and ultrafast electron diffraction experiments is largely dependent on the brightness of electron sources from photoinjectors. The maximum brightness from photoinjectors at a particular accelerating gradient is limited by the mean transverse energy (MTE) of electrons emitted from photocathodes. For high quantum efficiency (QE) cathodes like alkali-antimonide thin films, which are essential to mitigate the effects of non-linear photoemission on MTE, the smallest possible MTE and, hence, the highest possible brightness are limited by the nanoscale surface roughness and chemical inhomogeneity. In this work, we show that high QE Cs3Sb films grown on lattice-matched strontium titanate (STO) substrates have a factor of 4 smoother, chemically uniform surfaces compared to those traditionally grown on disordered Si surfaces. We perform simulations to calculate roughness induced MTE based on measured topographical and surface-potential variations on the Cs3Sb films grown on STO and show that these variations are small enough to have no consequential impact on the MTE and, hence, the brightness.

A rate model approach for FEL pulse induced transmissions changes, saturable absorption, X-ray transparency and stimulated emission

As the use of free electron laser (FEL) sources increases, so do the findings mentioning non-linear phenomena occurring at these experiments, such as saturable absorption, induced transparency and scattering breakdowns. These are well known among the laser community, but are still rarely understood and expected among the X-ray community and to date lack tools and theories to accurately predict the respective experimental parameters and results. We present a simple theoretical framework to access short X-ray pulse induced light–matter interactions which occur at intense short X-ray pulses as available at FEL sources. Our approach allows to investigate effects such as saturable absorption, induced transparency and scattering suppression, stimulated emission, and transmission spectra, while including the density of state influence relevant to soft X-ray spectroscopy in, for example, transition metal complexes or functional materials. This computationally efficient rate model based approach is intuitively adaptable to most solid state sample systems in the soft X-ray spectrum with the potential to be extended for liquid and gas sample systems as well. The feasibility of the model to estimate the named effects and the influence of the density of state is demonstrated using the example of CoPd transition metal systems at the Co edge. We believe this work is an important contribution for the preparation, performance, and understanding of FEL based high intensity and short pulse experiments, especially on functional materials in the soft X-ray spectrum.

Application of Wigner Distribution Function for THz Propagation Analysis.

The construction of a transmission line (TL) for a wide tunable broad-spectrum THz radiation source is not a simple task. We present here a platform for the future use of designs of the TL through our homemade simulations. The TL is designed to be a component of the construction of an innovative accelerator at the Schlesinger Family Center for Compact Accelerators, Radiation Sources and Applications (FEL). We developed a three-dimensional space-frequency tool for the analysis of a radiation pulse. The total electromagnetic (EM) field on the edge of the source is represented in the frequency domain in terms of cavity eigenmodes. However, any pulse can be used regardless of its mathematical function, which is the key point of this work. The only requirement is the existence of the original pulse. This EM field is converted to geometric-optical ray representation through the Wigner transform at any desired resolution. Wigner’s representation allows us to describe the dynamics of field evolution in future propagation, which allows us to determine an initial design of the TL. Representation of the EM field by rays gives access to the ray tracing method and future processing, operating in the linear and non-linear regimes. This allows for fast work with graphics cards and parallel processing, providing great flexibility and serving as future preparation that enables us to apply advanced libraries such as machine learning. The platform is used to study the phase-amplitude and spectral characteristics of multimode radiation generation in a free-electron laser (FEL) operating in various operational parameters.