Free BMAA Research Articles

Nitrogen starvation of cyanobacteria results in the production of β-N-methylamino-L-alanine

β-N-methylamino-L-alanine, an unusual amino acid implicated in neurodegenerative disease, has been detected in cultures of nearly all genera of environmentally ubiquitous cyanobacteria tested. The compound is present within cyanobacterial cells in free and protein-associated forms, with large variations occurring in the concentration of these pools between species as well as within single strains. With a lack of knowledge and supporting data on the regulation of BMAA production and the role of this compound in cyanobacteria, the association between BMAA and cyanobacteria is still subject to debate. In this study we investigated the biosynthesis of BMAA in axenic non-diazotrophic cyanobacterial cultures using the stable isotope 15N. Nitrogen starvation of nutritionally replete cells resulted in an increase in free cellular 15N BMAA suggesting that BMAA may be the result of catabolism to provide nitrogen or that BMAA is synthesised to serve a functional role in the cell in response to nitrogen deprivation. The addition of NO3− and NH4+ to the culture medium following starvation resulted in a decrease of free cellular BMAA without a corresponding increase in the protein-associated fraction. The use of ammonia as a nitrogen source resulted in a more rapid reduction of BMAA when compared to nitrate. This study provides the first data regarding the regulation of intracellular BMAA concentrations in cyanobacteria with results conclusively showing the production of 15N BMAA by an axenic cyanobacterial culture.

The effect of β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) on oxidative stress response enzymes of the macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum

Cyanobacteria are known to produce bioactive secondary metabolites such as hepatotoxins, cytotoxins and neurotoxins. The newly recognized neurotoxin β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) is a naturally occurring non-protein amino acid found in the majority of cyanobacterial genera tested. Evidence that exists for implication of BMAA in neurodegenerative disorders relies on bioaccumulation and biomagnification from symbiotic cyanobacteria. Uptake and accumulation of free BMAA by various non-symbiotic organisms, including aquatic macrophytes, has been documented but to date limited evidence of ecotoxicology exists. We therefore investigated the effect of BMAA on the oxidative stress responses of the macrophyte, Ceratophyllum demersum. Markers for oxidative stress in this study are the antioxidative enzymes superoxide dismutase, catalase, guaiacol peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase. We found that BMAA had an inhibitory effect on all the oxidative stress response enzymes tested in plants exposed to BMAA. However enzymes not related to oxidative stress response were not affected by BMAA in in vitro experiments. Binding studies in the presence of BMAA showed reduced enzyme specific activity over time compared to the control. This study shows that BMAA causes oxidative stress indirectly as it inhibits antioxidant enzymes required to combat reactive oxygen species that cause damage to cells. Further investigations are required to fully understand the inhibitory effect of BMAA on these enzymes.

β-N-Methylamino- l-alanine (BMAA) uptake by the aquatic macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum

Free-living freshwater cyanobacteria contain BMAA in both free cellular and protein-associated forms. Free BMAA released on bloom collapse or during cellular turnover creates a potential source of the non-proteinogenic amino acid for bioaccumulation and biomagnification in aquatic ecosystems. Uptake of free amino acids is well documented in macrophytes and the potential for aquatic macrophytes to bioaccumulate BMAA therefore poses a potential threat where such macrophytes constitute a food source in an ecosystem. BMAA uptake and accumulation by the aquatic macrophyte Ceratophyllum demersum was therefore investigated. Rapid uptake of significant amounts of BMAA was observed in C. demersum. Both free and protein-associated BMAA were observed with protein association following accumulation of free BMAA. The protein association suggests potential biomaccumulation by aquatic macrophytes and offers a possibility of phytoremediation for BMAA removal.

LC–MS/MS determination of the isomeric neurotoxins BMAA (β- N-methylamino- l-alanine) and DAB (2,4-diaminobutyric acid) in cyanobacteria and seeds of Cycas revoluta and Lathyrus latifolius

Since diverse taxa of cyanobacteria has been linked to biosynthesis of BMAA, a controversy has arisen about the detection of neurotoxic amino acids in cyanobacteria. In this context, a novel LC–MS/MS method was developed for the unambiguous determination of β- N-methylamino- l-alanine (BMAA) and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) in cyanobacteria and selected plant seeds. Both neurotoxic and non-proteinogenic amino acids were analyzed without derivatization considering the total concentration of the free and protein-bound form. The investigation of overall 62 cyanobacterial samples of worldwide origin by application of this method revealed the absence of BMAA, whereas seeds of Cycas revoluta contained 6.96 μg g −1 of free BMAA. In contrast, the isomer DAB was confirmed in 16 cyanobacterial samples in concentrations of 0.07–0.83 μg g −1,whereof one sample is distributed as nutritional supplement. In addition, seeds of Lathyrus latifolius contained 4.21 μg g −1 of free DAB. Limits of detection were for BMAA < 1.0 μg g −1 in the cyanobacterial matrix and < 0.14 μg g −1 in angiosperm seeds. DAB exhibits higher sensitivities of <0.06 μg g −1 in cyanobacteria and <0.008 μg g −1 in angiosperm seeds. The highly specific analysis method with increased detection sensitivity eliminates the disadvantages of derivatization-based methods to be discussed.

Detection of the neurotoxin BMAA within cyanobacteria isolated from freshwater in China

The cyanobacterial neurotoxin, β-N-methylamino- l -alanine (BMAA), has been suggested as an important environmental factor for neurodegenerative disease such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis- Parkinsonism dementia complex (ALS/PDC) in Guam. BMAA was detected within the majority of cyanobacterial isolates surveyed in both free and symbiotic cyanobacteria, living in freshwater as well as marine environments. In this study, we report two methods using liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) each coupled with a different type of hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) column to detect BMAA. A third method using AQC-derivatized BMAA was also used for comparison. Axenic cultures of Microcystis aeruginosa and Nostoc sp. isolated from Chinese freshwater were analyzed for both free and protein-bound BMAA at the exponential growth stage. Cultures of two strains of M. aeruginosa collected at four growth stages were also analyzed for the presence of BMAA. BMAA was detected in the Nostoc sp. at very low concentrations (<0.07 pmoles on column) only when precolumn AQC derivatization was used. No BMAA was detected in the Chinese derived axenic cultures of Microcystis; detection limits for the LC-ESI-MS and LC-ESI-MS/MS without precolumn derivatization were 10 ng and 2 pg BMAA on column, respectively. We suggest that cyanobacteria grown under some culture conditions may be relatively free of BMAA.

Parkinson–dementia complex and development of a new stable isotope dilution assay for BMAA detection in tissue

β-Methylamino- l-alanine (BMAA) has been proposed as a global contributor to neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson–dementia complex (PDC) of Guam and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The literature on the effects of BMAA is conflicting with some but not all in vitro data supporting a neurotoxic action, and experimental animal data failing to replicate the pattern of neurodegeneration of these human diseases, even at very high exposures. Recently, BMAA has been reported in human brain from individuals afflicted with PDC or AD. Some of the BMAA in human tissue reportedly is freely extractable (free) while some is protein-associated and liberated by techniques that hydrolyze the peptide bond. The latter is especially intriguing since BMAA is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that has no known tRNA. We attempted to replicate these findings with techniques similar to those used by others; despite more than adequate sensitivity, we were unable to detect free BMAA. Recently, using a novel stable isotope dilution assay, we again were unable to detect free or protein-associated BMAA in human cerebrum. Here we review the development of our new assay for tissue detection of BMAA and show that we are able to detect free BMAA in liver but not cerebrum, nor do we detect any protein-associated BMAA in mice fed this amino acid. These studies demonstrate the importance of a sensitive and specific assay for tissue BMAA and seriously challenge the proposal that BMAA is accumulating in human brain.

BMAA neurotoxicity in Drosophila

We report the establishment of an in vivo model using the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster to investigate the toxic effects of L-BMAA. We found that dietary intake of BMAA reduced the lifespan as well as the neurological functions of flies. Furthermore, we have developed an HPLC method to reliably detect both free and protein-bound BMAA in fly tissue extracts.

β- N-methylamino- l-alanine (BMAA) in novel South African cyanobacterial isolates

β- N-methylamino- l-alanine (BMAA) is a neurotoxic non-proteinogenic amino acid reportedly produced by the majority of cyanobacterial isolates. A novel method was developed for the detection of BMAA in biological samples. Cultures representing the taxonomic diversity and geographic distribution in Southern Africa were collected and made uni-algal by standard methods before analysis for the presence of both free and protein-associated BMAA. Protein-associated BMAA was released by acid hydrolysis in an inert atmosphere. Samples were analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) with pre-derivatization of amino acids using Phenomonex EZ:faast™ of the tested cultures, 96% were positive for BMAA although several were below the limit for quantification. BMAA presence was not related to the geographic origin or taxonomy of isolates and no correlation between free and bound BMAA concentrations was observed within or between taxonomic groups. These data offer the first confirmation of the taxonomic and geographic ubiquity of BMAA in freshwater cyanobacteria.

A mechanism for slow release of biomagnified cyanobacterial neurotoxins and neurodegenerative disease in Guam.

As root symbionts of cycad trees, cyanobacteria of the genus Nostoc produce beta-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA), a neurotoxic nonprotein amino acid. The biomagnification of BMAA through the Guam ecosystem fits a classic triangle of increasing concentrations of toxic compounds up the food chain. However, because BMAA is polar and nonlipophilic, a mechanism for its biomagnification through increasing trophic levels has been unclear. We report that BMAA occurs not only as a free amino acid in the Guam ecosystem but also can be released from a bound form by acid hydrolysis. After first removing free amino acids from tissue samples of various trophic levels (cyanobacteria, root symbioses, cycad seeds, cycad flour, flying foxes eaten by the Chamorro people, and brain tissues of Chamorros who died from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis/Parkinsonism dementia complex), we then hydrolyzed the remaining fraction and found BMAA concentrations increased 10- to 240-fold. This bound form of BMAA may function as an endogenous neurotoxic reservoir, accumulating and being transported between trophic levels and subsequently being released during digestion and protein metabolism. Within brain tissues, the endogenous neurotoxic reservoir can slowly release free BMAA, thereby causing incipient and recurrent neurological damage over years or even decades, which may explain the observed long latency period for neurological disease onset among the Chamorro people. The presence of BMAA in brain tissues from Canadian patients who died of Alzheimer's disease suggests that exposure to cyanobacterial neurotoxins occurs outside of Guam.