Multilateral Framework Research Articles

Seeing Through a “Nuclear” Glass Darkly: Envisioning Irreversible Nuclear Disarmament in the Middle East

ABSTRACT Applying the concept of “Irreversible Nuclear Disarmament” (IND) to the Middle East presents several challenges. Conceptually, the key frameworks for addressing the nuclear challenge in the region – namely the establishment of a zone free from all weapons of mass destruction in the Middle East (MEWMDFZ) – lacks a robust disarmament pillar to anchor IND. A further challenge is structural and relates to the markedly different nuclear context prevailing in the Middle East to that which governed the evolution of the IND concept. Although still at a nascent stage, the conceptual and political frameworks underpinning irreversibility at the global level have evolved within the relatively stable context of strategic interactions between the Nuclear Weapons States and a well-defined global discourse regarding nuclear arms control and disarmament. Attempting to transpose frameworks of irreversibility as they have developed in this relatively stable context to the more complex, unstable and fluid regional setting of the Middle East is fraught with difficulty. This paper presents a “first-cut” attempt to address these challenges. It argues that the most viable approach for applying IND to the Middle East is through a regional multilateral framework embedded in the MEWMDFZ. However, the zone framework as it has been formulated thus far, requires further development. Specifically, there is a need to incorporate a viable disarmament pillar, as well as provisions aimed at mitigating regional nuclear hedging and latency dynamics in order to provide for a more conducive regional nuclear environment to achieve high levels of irreversibility.

Israel as India’s Pivot in the IMEC

India’s policy on the Middle East has broadly been bilateral and in the process, it had to strike a fine balance in furthering relations with countries that are rivals. Its “Look West” policy, introduced in 2005, made some inroads in the Middle East, enlarging its economic and strategic footprints. In recent years, it has stepped up its engagements through minilateral and multilateral frameworks by joining India, Israel, the United States, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) (I2U2) grouping and jointly launching the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC). The I2U2 was launched in 2020 for expansive economic cooperation in vital areas of water, energy, transportation, space, health, and food security. It was catalyzed in the backdrop of the Abraham Accords. In September 2023, during the G20 summit in New Delhi, seven countries, namely, India, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, France, Germany, Italy, the United States, and the European Union (EU), signed a Memorandum of Understanding for the IMEC. The October 7, 2023 attack on Israel and its attendant consequences have threatened to derail this multilateral cooperation, but India and other signatories have remained steadfast in their commitment to IMEC, raising hope for its future.

THE MUTLISTAKEHOLDER INITIATIVE APPROACH TO EUROPEAN CRISIS MANAGEMENT. CIVILIAN CSDP AND ENGAGEMENT WITH LOCAL NONSTATE ACTORS

: The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) missions are deployed in complex operational environments, where a plethora of national, regional and international actors are present. These present circumstances enable the existence of an - either direct or indirect - but inexorable engagement between all stakeholders involved in similar activities. While the vast majority of current debates and research focus solely on the cooperative dimension of the CSDP in the framework of multilateralism and regionalism, the topic of the EU's engagement with local stakeholders is scarcely explored. Therefore, drawing on the multistakeholder initiative approach (MSI) in economic theory, this paper assesses the engagement of CSDP missions with civil societies and private sector entities in theatres of operations. Employing a single case study approach of inquiry, consisting of the EUCAP Somalia mission this paper aims at answering the research questions: how does EUCAP Somalia engage with local non-state actors, what are the opportunities associated with this engagement and to what extent can a MSI approach be implemented by EUCAP Somalia?By deploying a qualitative research design, this paper uses document analysis within a single case study approach of inquiry. The results of this approach show two distinct tendencies. While EUCAP Somalia informally engages with local non-state actors, this engagement is rather insufficient. Results of this research further show that CSDP missions represent an important tool of EU diplomacy and their engagement with local non-state actors positively impacts the implementation of two of their core principles: local ownership and human security.

Intellectual property rights in regional trade agreements: balancing economic and political interests in the EU and RCEP

Abstract Subject and purpose of work In the contemporary global economy, regional trade agreements (RTAs) and economic multilateral frameworks are crucial for establishing comprehensive norms and standards that enhance international trade, including the protection of intellectual property rights (IPR). This paper examines the role of IPR coherence in fostering trade and innovation, focusing on the European Union (EU) and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). Materials and methods Through a comparative analysis, the paper provides insights into the complex dynamics between developed and developing regions, emphasizing the importance of harmonized IPR standards for a more inclusive and integrated global market. Results The EU, with its stringent regulatory standards, contrasts with the more flexible IPR approaches of the diverse Asia-Pacific nations in RCEP. The study explores the necessity and benefits of harmonizing these IPR frameworks to improve trade relations and stimulate innovation. It highlights China’s pragmatic strategy in aligning its evolving IP regulations with international standards while accommodating the needs of ASEAN countries. Conclusions The findings suggest pathways for enhancing IP protection standards and fostering mutual economic growth and innovation.

Kazakhstan’s foreign policy strategy within the framework of Central Asian integration

ABSTRACT This study analyzes the evolution of Kazakhstan’s foreign policy strategy in relation to regional integration initiatives in Central Asia and the influence of global power to it. The geopolitical space of Central Asia, also known as Turkestan, consists of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan. Using historical, institutional, and value-normative approaches, this article examines the development of Kazakhstan’s strategy after independence through its participation in multilateral frameworks like the Central Asian Union, CACO, SCO, as well as bilateral partnerships. The key trend identified is a shift from reliance on multilateral mechanisms to prioritizing bilateral relations within the region, driven by pragmatism and economic considerations. However, persisting challenges like regional instability may require Kazakhstan to reengage in multilateral cooperation on shared issues. By mapping Kazakhstan’s changing strategy, this study provides useful insights into a secondary power’s navigation of major power interests while seeking greater leadership in its region. It contributes to scholarship on Central Asian cooperation and the foreign policy options of states in this area. The analysis will interest researchers in regional studies, ethnography, and comparative politics, as well as general readers interested in Kazakhstan’s evolving strategic priorities.

India in Contested Regional Multilateralism: Between Seeking Institutional Balancing and Avoiding Rising Power Dilemmas

How does India navigate contested regional multilateral frameworks in the Asia‐Pacific? This question has important implications for India's multilateral foreign policy and diplomacy that seeks to emerge from regional to global power. The authors argue that India's foreign policy involves seeking institutional balancing and avoiding rising power dilemmas. Based on the conceptual framework of institutional balancing and rising power dilemma, the paper examines how seeking institutional balancing helps India advance its diplomatic prowess vis‐à‐vis rising China while simultaneously leveraging its multi‐alignment strategy against the United States. Furthermore, the paper discusses India's key priorities for avoiding the rising power dilemma, thus exhibiting its reluctance to conform to the US hegemony and addressing its internal and external dilemma concerning China. The evaluation suggests that India's foreign policy rationality navigates between obtaining comprehensive security and economic gains in dealing with contested regional multilateralism.

India and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization: In search of a middle ground

AbstractThe Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) Summit (2023) in virtual format only exposed the growing disconnect between India and the members of this multilateral framework. Given the precarious state of India's relations with its immediate neighbors, China and Pakistan, and the growing camaraderie between Beijing and Moscow, this article examines the reasons behind New Delhi's continued need to engage with this multilateral framework. While India seeks to use the SCO as a “bridge” to improve its ties with Central Asian nations and act as a “check and balance” within the organization, Beijing's ascendancy as the “primary” external actor in the Af‐Pak and Central Asia region has meant that India's ability to gain advantages from its association with the SCO will be severely limited. As the protracted war in Ukraine continues unabated, India's attempts to find a “middle ground” between competing interests and principles will be put to the test.

Research on the Development of China-Brazil Trade Relationship under the Lula Administration—Based on the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership

During President Lula’s visit to China, the two sides issued a joint statement on deepening the comprehensive strategic partnership, which made clear the common will to continuously promote economic and trade cooperation. The trade structure of China and Brazil is highly complementary, and the trade relationship has been stable. Due to Brazil’s good agricultural development and rich natural resources, the commodities exported to China are mainly soybeans, crude oil, and iron ore, and there has been a trend of gradually enriching commodity structure in recent years. The continuous positive development of China’s trade relations is reflected in the following aspects: On the one hand, from the data of the first three quarters of 2023, it can be seen that Brazil’s trade surplus with China has a trend of continuous expansion, which plays a positive role in the recovery of Brazil’s national economy; On the other hand, from the perspective of internal affairs and multilateral mechanisms, the future development of China-Brazil trade relationship can generate more possibilities and convenience under the multilateral framework, and improve the “common integration” of developing countries trade.

China–North Korea Arms Trade from the Perspective of Chinese Scholars

executive summary: This article examines the historical context and evolving dynamics of China–North Korea arms trade and its future scenarios, shedding light on the motivations, methods, and implications of this strategic partnership. main argument An assessment of open-source materials authored by Chinese scholars and experts indicates that, despite international sanctions on weapon sales to North Korea, arms exports play a significant role in enhancing China's geopolitical influence, countering the U.S., and securing a Chinese presence on the Korean Peninsula. Arms exports from China to North Korea are likely to shift from individual products to integrated systems, influenced by the adoption of systems thinking in both the Chinese and the North Korean defense sectors. Additionally, arms trade may evolve toward taking place within China's expanding multilateral frameworks, such as the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Initiative. China may also see a role for North Korea as an intermediary for arms sales to other sanctioned states, mirroring its historical role as an intermediary for North Korea. policy implications • If arms sales from China to North Korea transform into system-based packages, then policymakers should anticipate changes in the nature and coordination of North Korean weaponry, necessitating a reassessment of defense strategies. • If China integrates arms trade into multilateral frameworks, then it is recommended that the U.S. monitor and assess the impact of these organizations on regional security dynamics and consider diplomatic measures to mitigate their securitization. • If North Korea acts as an intermediary for Chinese arms sales to sanctioned states, then robust intelligence efforts and international collaboration should be prioritized to enforce arms control regimes and curb illicit activities. • If Chinese assistance enhances North Korea's military capabilities, then counterstrategies for North Korean systems warfare and advanced technologies will be important for the U.S. so that it can continue to operate effectively in networked environments on the Korean Peninsula.

Cross-border workers - navigating the challenges of social security coordination rules in the era of telework in the European Union

In 1 2020, there were 1.7 million cross-border workers in the European Union, creating difficulties in determining the applicable legislation for social security matters. The reason for this complexity is that even in cross-border activities, the legislation of only one Member State is applicable according to the Coordination Regulation 883/2004. This article examines the evolving landscape of social security coordination in the European Union. It explores the interplay between the European principle of free movement of workers and the complexities arising from various national social security systems, combined with the increase in telework. The article outlines the foundational legal frameworks underpinning social security within the European Union, including the Coordination Regulation EC 883/2004, and discusses primarily the challenges in applying these rules to cross-border teleworkers. It further analyses the implications of the new Multilateral Framework Agreement, providing a nuanced understanding of its role in offering simplified procedures and legal certainty for habitual cross-border teleworkers. The article also highlights the Agreement's limitations, including its restricted scope and the persisting administrative burdens. The discussion extends to the broader context of ongoing legislative efforts and the need for more flexible and modern social security coordination rules in the European Union. The article aims to shed light on the critical issues surrounding social security coordination in an era of evolving work practices.

BRICS 15 Years On: Challenges and Opportunities for Emerging Countries in the Shifting Global Institutional Landscape

Since the onset of the 2008 financial crisis, the concept of multipolarity has regained prominence, driven by the persistent demands of emerging economies for increased representation and involvement within multilateral institutions. Since 2009, BRICS nations have orchestrated collaborative economic strategies to recalibrate their positions on the global stage. This article seeks to examine the positioning of new entities such as the New Development Bank (NDB) and China-led initiatives within a landscape characterized by the coexistence of traditional structures primarily led by the US and Europe. Against the backdrop of recent global developments, the research endeavors to elucidate the effective role of BRICS in the contemporary international arena, fifteen years since their inception. Specifically, it explores whether current international transformations align with BRICS' aspirations. The investigation employs theoretical frameworks from International Political Economy (IPE), particularly focusing on the dynamics of international multilateral frameworks.

International Standards for Regulatory Deference Relating to National Food Control Systems: More to Do?

AbstractThis paper describes how the development of texts on regulatory deference by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) addresses relevant recommendations of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and supports Member countries of CAC in their negotiation and implementation of equivalence agreements. We consider the role and function of CAC within a rules-based multilateral framework, particularly in relation to the development and implementation of equivalence concepts. We then consider whether, through use of equivalence agreements, trade facilitation outcomes have been realised. Our hypothesis is that international standards on regulatory deference promote fair but aspirational standards and support fair practices in the trade of safe food – both vital outcomes for global food security and the achievement of many of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. We test this hypothesis against the framework provided by decisions of the WTO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Committee. We argue that the equivalence concepts and guidelines developed by CAC are appropriate but underutilised tools available for Member countries to strike a balance between their right to regulate to protect human, animal or plant life and health and to fulfil legitimate objectives whilst meeting their WTO obligations to avoid measures that constitute unnecessary barriers to trade.

CROSS-BORDER TAX CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS IN GLOBAL FINANCE

In the dynamic landscape of global finance, cross-border transactions have become increasingly prevalent, facilitating economic growth and international trade. However, accompanying this expansion are complex tax challenges that both multinational corporations and governments encounter. This abstract delves into the multifaceted issues arising from cross-border taxation and explores potential solutions to mitigate these challenges effectively. One of the primary concerns in cross-border taxation is the issue of base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS), where multinational enterprises exploit gaps and mismatches in tax rules to artificially shift profits to low-tax jurisdictions, thereby eroding the tax base of higher-tax jurisdictions. Such practices not only lead to revenue losses for governments but also create an uneven playing field for businesses. Furthermore, navigating the intricate web of international tax treaties and agreements poses significant hurdles for taxpayers and tax authorities alike. The lack of uniformity in tax regulations across jurisdictions often results in ambiguity and disputes regarding the allocation of taxing rights and the determination of taxable income. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that incorporates both policy reforms and international cooperation. Implementing measures such as the OECD/G20 BEPS project, which aims to modernize international tax rules and combat tax avoidance strategies, is crucial. Additionally, enhancing transparency through initiatives like country-by-country reporting enables tax authorities to gain insights into the global operations of multinational corporations, thereby facilitating more effective enforcement of tax laws. Moreover, fostering collaboration among nations through information exchange agreements and multilateral frameworks enhances the effectiveness of tax enforcement efforts and reduces opportunities for tax evasion. Embracing digitalization and leveraging technology tools can also streamline tax compliance processes and enhance the efficiency of cross-border tax administration. The complexities of cross-border taxation in global finance necessitate proactive measures to address BEPS, enhance tax transparency, and promote international cooperation. By implementing comprehensive strategies that blend policy reforms with technological innovations, stakeholders can navigate the challenges posed by cross-border taxation while fostering a fair and conducive environment for sustainable economic growth.
 Keywords: Cross-Border, Tax, Environment, Sustainable, Economy, Review.

The consignment note and the community license – confirmative tools for the execution of the contract for the international carriage of goods by road on the territory of the European Union

The present clause covers the characteristics and ways of functioning of the relationship between the consignment note and the community license in the context of carrying out international road transport operations besides the territory of the European Union. Given that the community license can be identified as an analogue of the C.E.M.T. authorization, issued exclusively on the territory of the European Union, the description of its content, particularities, as well as of the way of its obtain, establishes an aspects of interest for an research of the European Union’s legislati-on in the field of international transport of goods by road. In respect that, in its spareness the community license can not produce legal effects on the territory of the community space, the necessity of examining the nominated kind in terms of the existing multilateral framework and the legislation of the European Union which settles the operations of road transport of goods is attested in this regard.

The Iran Nuclear Deal (JCPOA) and Implications for the North Korean Nuclear Crisis

This article addresses the question of whether there is a peaceful way to defuse the North Korean nuclear crisis by examining the process leading to the Iran nuclear deal. The European approach to resolve security crises based on its principles of multilateralism and the rule of law provides valuable insights for nuclear diplomacy with North Korea: (1) a nuclear-focus approach that dissociates nuclear negotiations from Iran’s other troublesome issues helps the country continue with discussions preventing a military conflict and (2) a multilateral framework with a mediator can guarantee that deals remain alive even if one party breaks away.

Engagement sans commitment: a new phase of US-India relations

ABSTRACT The ‘historic’ Biden-Modi Summit (2023) yielded significant concessions and advantages for New Delhi, but did it fundamentally change the relations between the world’s two largest democracies? This article examines the causes of tensions between the two countries and contends that relations between Washington and New Delhi can only be deepened if the former meets the latter’s primary security and economic concerns while also reducing public criticism of its state of governance. The article argues that there is a ‘new’ phase in the partnership because the onus of strengthening the pace and depth of cooperation lies with Washington. It also argues that while Washington has initiated measures to woo New Delhi to its corner, the latter is unlikely to change its approach towards Russia or align itself with the US and its foreign policies. India’s insistence on ‘strategic autonomy’ and engagement in multilateral frameworks that conflict with the US’s national interests demonstrate that considerable disagreements remain between the two states. Although India and the United States have strengthened their mutual engagement, the broader issue is that ties have grown more transactional in nature.

The order of law-based vs. rules-based: The competition in space order between China and the United States

China has attempted to build a law-based order in the emerging strategic space competition that is distinct from the US rules-based order. This article examines China’s law-based order and compares it with the US rules-based order. The article also explores how China has competed with the US in the reconstruction of the order in space and the consequences of this competition. The article argues that it will contribute to the stability and peace of the international space order during the transition period if the US accommodates China’s proposal for a space order based on international law. From this perspective, the rules of both countries can coexist. In order to achieve the coexistence of their respective rules, the two countries should sit down to discuss and strictly implement a consensus on a transparency and confidence-building mechanism (TCBMs)in outer space within the framework of effective multilateralism.

Technology trade controls and US–China competition

Competition for technological superiority is now a key aspect of the rivalry between China and the United States. Mastery of advanced technologies like artificial-intelligence, microelectronics and quantum-information systems will determine military and economic pre-eminence in the future. The US has imposed significant restrictions on China’s access to sophisticated technology, and it has adopted industrial policies and established multilateral frameworks to exclude China from certain technology ecosystems. Meanwhile, China aims to achieve world leadership in semiconductor-dependent technologies and plans to accelerate its development of indigenous capabilities to overcome the technology barrier raised by the US.

Cooperation on Transboundary Fine Dust: Revisiting Korea's Prudential Environmental Diplomacy Toward China and Its Policy Effectiveness

Abstract: In this article, I investigate Korea's prudential environmental diplomacy with China regarding transboundary fine dust pollution from the perspective of Korea's disadvantageous position vis-à-vis China due to the ambiguity of pollution responsibilities and geopolitical constraints. Against this backdrop, Korea has tactically exercised prudential environmental diplomacy toward China in dual tracks. First, it has taken a "high-profile" stance in engaging with and socializing China into bilateral and multilateral frameworks and endeavors to align its environmental interests with those of China via scientific and technological cooperation. Second, Korea has undertaken a cautious procedure and is not pressuring China by pursuing legal-binding approaches immediately. I see a "mixed success" of Korea's environmental engagement with China and appraise Korea's policy flexibility and pragmatism.

Managing economic statecraft via multilateral agreements: the roles of ASEAN member states in shaping Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

Economic statecraft (ES) has been playing an increased role in affecting the international relations. While armed conflicts decline, states have been weaponising trade, investment, and other economic ties to gain leverage over their counterparts. In the contemporary world, ES is not only used to galvanise countries’ influence in specific issue areas but also part of their grand strategy to achieve broad power-maximisation goals. Despite a proliferation of ES literatures in recent years, extant research tended to focus on great powers’ ES, leaving small states’ ES under-examined. Also, previous studies usually looked into how countries unilaterally employ ES. Hence, insufficient attention has been paid to how regional states work together to collectively alter multilateral frameworks to advance their ES. Against this backdrop, this paper investigates small nations’ roles in the development of multilateral cooperative frameworks. Using the ES lens, it explores how these countries leverage these schemes to push forward their collective ES. The main argument is that regional states worked together to craft the terms of multilateral economic agreements to galvanise their clout over certain governance areas. I validate this argument by using the case of Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). This study makes contributions to the research pertaining to ES, small states’ strategies, and economic regionalism. It also yields practical implications for policymakers involved in fostering international economic governance.