Fragmented Landscapes Research Articles

The Influence of Fragmented Landscapes on Speciation.

In the face of unprecedented global transformations, unraveling the intricate mechanisms governing biodiversity patterns is imperative for predicting and interpreting species responses. An important element in this interplay is fragmentation and the spatial mosaic or arrangement of suitable sites within the landscape. Beyond its well-documented impact on biodiversity loss, fragmented landscapes also influence the origin of biodiversity, by influencing speciation dynamics. This research employs a model that integrates spatial configuration and dispersal abilities of individuals to investigate the impact of landscape configuration on species' evolutionary trajectories. Specifically, we propose a microevolutionary model where individuals are characterized by their dispersal ability and a genome, allowing population evolution and diversification. Space is explicitly characterized by suitable and unsuitable sites that define fragmented landscapes. Our model demonstrates how intermediate dispersal abilities enhance diversification. However, simulations of more fragmented landscapes result in a lower total number of individuals and a lower percentage of occupied sites by individuals, particularly when species have limited dispersal abilities. Furthermore, we have found that intermediate levels of fragmentation can stimulate greater species richness, while higher levels of speciation and extinction events tend to occur under higher fragmentations. Our results also show a non-monotonic dependence of richness on dispersal, supporting the intermediate dispersal hypothesis as promotor of diversification, demonstrating the synergistic effects of landscape configuration and species dispersal ability in the processes of speciation, extinction, and diversification. This impact of fragmentation poses a real challenge for biodiversity in the context of a dynamic world.

Spatiotemporal assessment of the nexus between urban sprawl and land surface temperature as microclimatic effect: implications for urban planning.

Rapid urbanisation has led to significant environmental and climatic changes worldwide, especially in urban heat islands where increased land surface temperature (LST) poses a major challenge to sustainable urban living. In the city of Abha in southwestern Saudi Arabia, a region experiencing rapid urban growth, the impact of such expansion on LST and the resulting microclimatic changes are still poorly understood. This study aims to explore the dynamics of urban sprawl and its direct impact on LST to provide important insights for urban planning and climate change mitigation strategies. Using the random forest (RF) algorithm optimised for land use and land cover (LULC) mapping, LULC models were derived that had an overall accuracy of 87.70%, 86.27% and 93.53% for 1990, 2000 and 2020, respectively. The mono-window algorithm facilitated the derivation of LST, while Markovian transition matrices and spatial linear regression models assessed LULC dynamics and LST trends. Notably, built-up areas grew from 69.40 km2 in 1990 to 338.74 km2 in 2020, while LST in urban areas showed a pronounced warming trend, with temperatures increasing from an average of 43.71°C in 1990 to 50.46°C in 2020. Six landscape fragmentation indices were then calculated for urban areas over three decades. The results show that the Largest Patch Index (LPI) increases from 22.78 in 1990 to 65.24 in 2020, and the number of patches (NP) escalates from 2,531 in 1990 to an impressive 10,710 in 2020. Further regression analyses highlighted the morphological changes in the cities and attributed almost 97% of the LST variability to these urban patch dynamics. In addition, water bodies showed a cooling trend with a temperature decrease from 33.76°C in 2000 to 29.69°C in 2020, suggesting an anthropogenic influence. The conclusion emphasises the urgent need for sustainable urban planning to counteract the warming trends associated with urban sprawl and promote climate resilience.

The impact of tourist destinations on wildlife in northern Finland

ABSTRACT Increased tourism impact, recreational activities and structures in natural areas can affect wildlife by increasing urbanization, landscape fragmentation and disturbance. I examined the potential effects of tourist destinations on four forest grouse (Tetraoninae) and five mammalian species in northern Finland. I analyzed density data obtained from wildlife counts carried out by hunters around ten tourist destinations. The densities of mountain hare and mustelid species were negatively correlated with the distance to a tourist destination. The densities of adult grouse, juvenile grouse, mountain hare, and mustelids were positively correlated with the area of mixed forests surrounding the destinations. The densities of adult and juvenile grouse were positively correlated, while the densities of pine marten and mustelids were negatively correlated with the area of agricultural land surrounding the destinations. The densities of the studied wildlife species varied among destinations and years. It seems that current recreational activities have not caused significant changes in the occurrence and abundance of wildlife species in the surroundings of the tourist destinations studied. Location of a destination, predator densities, and landscape structure around the destination had the most impact on the density of wildlife species.

Characterizing landscape fragmentation of Koitobos river sub-basin, Trans-Nzoia, Kenya

The changes in landscape structure and functioning due to unprecedented human interference are hastening across the globe and it is thus a compelling necessity to preserve and restore our ecosystems. This study aimed to characterize levels of landscape fragmentation, habitat structure, driving forces, and perceptions of the residents on the most preferred reconfiguration approaches. The land use/land cover [LULC] change was first determined by interpreting the 1973, 1986, 1995, 2002, 2014, and 2022 Landsat images using the QGIS 3.26 while the selected landscape fragmentation metrics were analyzed using FRAGSTATS 4.2. Forests, shrubs, and grasslands showed a declining trend, except for agriculture, water, and built-up areas, which depicted high increases for the study periods [1973 to 2022]. The landscape of the study area is characterized as progressively fragmenting as signified by high escalated values of patch number [374 %], edge density [7828 %] between 1986 and 2002, contagion [10.3%], and a declined value of Shannon Diversity Index [SHDI] [-17.42%], Shannon evenness index [SHEI] [-25.8 %] and connectedness [-43.3%]. Considering these results, high losses of forests and grasslands coupled with expansive farmlands and built-up areas have led to unprecedented landscape fragmentation From field surveys and oral interviews, this has not only left streams vulnerable to massive sediment loads but has also triggered annual floods which occur during wet months even though change in onset of rainfall seasons was also reported. The findings call for restoration and integrated and sustainable restoration efforts, especially for the forests, grasslands, and riparian corridors along with sustainable urban planning and community-based sensitization on watershed management.

Searching to improve connectivity in fragmented landscapes: Road verges as complementary habitats

AbstractAimsFunctional connectivity is crucial for conserving biodiversity and ecosystem services in fragmented landscapes. Linear landscape elements play an important role in providing refuge for plants and pollinators, as well as serving as biological corridors. The aim of this study was to assess the importance of road verges in maintaining the ecological connectivity of plant species assemblages in the Tandilia mountain system.LocationSouth America, Southern Pampa region of Argentina, Tandilia mountain system.MethodsUsing graph theory, landscape connectivity was quantified both at landscape scale and at the patch scale using the probability connectivity index (PCnum), taking into account the dispersal ability of observed species. The contribution of each landscape element to habitat availability and connectivity was evaluated using different fractions of the PCnum metric. Likewise, the influence of connectivity variables in explaining species assemblages grouped by functional categories was investigated using canonical ordination techniques.ResultsThe inclusion of road verges led to an 81% increase in overall connectivity at a threshold distance of 500 m. Connectivity significantly explained the assemblages of entomophilous plant species for all dispersal distances. Annual species assemblage variation was associated with intra‐patch connectivity. Variation in perennial and shrub species assemblages was explained by intra‐patch and inter‐patch connectivity.ConclusionsPreservation and restoration of these linear landscape elements play a pivotal role in transitioning toward more sustainable agroecosystems. This ecological and practical information may help prioritize plant species and the sites used to restore an essential but neglected ecosystem.

Landscape Fragmentation and Deforestation in Sierra Leone, West Africa, Analysed Using Satellite Images

Landscape Fragmentation and Deforestation in Sierra Leone, West Africa, Analysed Using Satellite Images

Monitoring Grassland Variation in a Typical Area of the Qinghai Lake Basin Using 30 m Annual Maximum NDVI Data

The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) can depict the status of vegetation growth and coverage in grasslands, whereas coarse spatial resolution, cloud cover, and vegetation phenology limit its applicability in fine-scale research, especially in areas covering various vegetation or in fragmented landscapes. In this study, a methodology was developed for obtaining the 30 m annual maximum NDVI to overcome these shortcomings. First, the Landsat NDVI was simulated by fusing Landsat and MODIS NDVI by using the enhanced spatial and temporal adaptive reflectance fusion model (ESTARFM), and then a single-peaked symmetric logistic model was employed to fit the Landsat NDVI data and derive the maximum NDVI in a year. The annual maximum NDVI was then used as a season-independent substitute to monitor grassland variation from 2001 to 2022 in a typical area covering the major vegetation types in the Qinghai Lake Basin. The major conclusions are as follows: (1) Our method for reconstructing the NDVI time series yielded higher accuracy than the existing dataset. The root mean square error (RMSE) for 91.8% of the pixels was less than 0.1. (2) The annual maximum NDVI from 2001 to 2022 exhibited spatial distribution characteristics, with higher values in the northern and southern regions and lower values in the central area. In addition, the earlier vegetation growth maximum dates were related to the vegetation type and accompanied by higher NDVI maxima in the study area. (3) The overall interannual variation showed a slight increasing trend from 2001 to 2022, and the degraded area was characterized as patches and was dominated by Alpine kobresia spp., Forb Meadow, whose change resulted from a combination of permafrost degradation, overgrazing, and rodent infestation and should be given more attention in the Qinghai Lake Basin.

COMPREHENSIVE PARTICIPATION: A THEORETICALLY HAILED YET PRACTICALLY DISREGARDED APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE ECOTOURISM

The commitment and attitudes of all stakeholders, as well as giving recognition to their value as partners in the ecotourism domain, are crucial elements in ensuring sustainable ecotourism development. The social capacity theory (SCT) posits that implementing networks of relationships is a fundamental basis for successful and sustainable tourism development. However, research has shown that the planning and management of numerous ecotourism development programs are marred by a top-down approach. This study examined the level of stakeholder participation in ecotourism activities in the Umfolozi Municipality to determine if any gaps exist in the participation structure of this key economic enterprise. A concurrent exploratory mixed methods design was operated using qualitative and quantitative survey. Qualitative data that were collected from purposefully sampled participants were thematically analysed, while quantitative data that were collected from conveniently sampled respondents were analysed using SPSS software. The findings highlight the centralisation of power and a fragmented ecotourism landscape in the study area that is plagued by manipulative participation, lack of collaboration, lac k of co-ordination, lack of awareness, and apathy among key stakeholders.

Evolution and plasticity of physiological traits in the collembolan Orchesella villosa at fine spatial scales within the city

Abstract Divergent natural selection caused by spatial environmental variation can lead to local adaptation and evolutionary divergence between populations, even those within close proximity to one another. This, however, is only one possibility among other outcomes, such as the evolution of adaptive phenotypic plasticity or local maladaptation. Cities, as fragmented landscapes with high environmental variability across microgeographic scales, present an excellent venue to explore these possible outcomes. Here, we use common garden experiments to explore the potential for microgeographic divergence of physiological traits among populations of a collembolan, Orchesella villosa, living within the footprint of a single city. We assessed if intra-urban variation in the intensity of the heat island effect and soil salinity has led to evolutionary divergence in heat tolerance and salinity tolerance, respectively. While we found little variation in salinity tolerance among populations, there was evidence for both plasticity and evolutionary divergence among populations in response to variation in the urban heat island. Although the adaptive nature of these specific responses is not known, we suggest that cities, and human modified habitats in general, promote evolutionary divergence at small spatial scales by creating barriers to dispersal and imposing divergent selective environments within previously contiguous habitats.

Complex patch geometries maximize species richness at the expense of forest specialists

AbstractHabitat loss and fragmentation are the greatest threats to reptiles and amphibians (herpetofauna) around the globe, but especially in the Neotropics where high diversity and ongoing land‐use change coincide. Persistence of biodiversity in fragmented systems relies both on characteristics of habitat patches, and on the permeability of the landscape that separates the patches (the “matrix”). We sought to understand: (a) how the herpetofauna community differs between forest reserves, patches, corridors, and matrices, and (b) the landscape characteristics that increase suitability of a habitat patch. We conducted herpetofauna surveys in patches, corridors, matrices, and preserves (54 total sites) in a fragmented landscape in Costa Rica for three seasons. We recorded 1663 individuals of 52 species. We found that the herpetofauna community differed, and had lower richness and abundance, in the matrix compared to the other three habitat types. Patches and corridors supported a similar community to the forest preserves, demonstrating the conservation value of small forest remnants. Water body presence was an important predictor of richness and abundance in both patches and matrices. While total richness increased in patches with more edge, this was driven by the response of generalist species, whereas the prime indicator species of forest preserves decreased in patches with complex shapes. The differing response to landscape characteristics between specialist and generalist species demonstrates the importance of considering specific taxa when setting conservation goals, rather than using richness measures alone. Our findings can help guide preservation of forest fragments to optimize biodiversity conservation in mixed forest‐pastoral landscapes.Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.

Impacts of Spatio-Temporal Changes in Anthropogenic Disturbances on Landscape Patterns in the Nandu River Basin, China

We explored the characteristics of landscape pattern (LP) changes in the Nandu River Basin (NRB) and its dynamic response mechanism to anthropogenic disturbance (AD). This is important for ecological protection and for land use decision-making in the basin in the context of the construction of a free trade port. Land use and land cover change (LULCC) data of 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 were analyzed with the help of the LP index, moving window method, hemeroby index, geo-information atlas, and geographic information system (GIS) spatial analysis to reveal the dynamic changes in LP characteristics in the NRB. Furthermore, this paper discusses into the correlation between LP and AD. The results indicate that over the past three decades, the NRB showed a staggered LP, dominated by forestland and cropland, whose total area has decreased by 25.27 km2 and 62.75 km2, respectively. On the other hand, the built-up land increased by 91.37%. The overall landscape fragmentation, landscape patch homogeneity, and landscape diversity have increased in the NRB. AD is the main reason for the dramatic changes in the LP of urban agglomerations centered in Haikou city. The area of minor disturbance (over 34%) occupies the largest proportion of the land, followed by higher (about 13~25%) and moderate disturbances (about 17~22%). The area of minor and strong disturbances has increased significantly, whereas those of moderate and higher disturbances have significantly decreased. The spatial distribution pattern of AD is gradually increasing from the southwest (natural landscape) to the northeast (human landscape). A transition in areas of low disturbance levels to higher levels is obvious. The area of the atlas that has transitioned from “minor → lighter disturbance (12)” and “higher → minor disturbance (41)” changed changed most significantly during 2000 to 2010 and from 2010 to 2020, occupying 26.79% and 11.99% of the transfer atlas, respectively. All regions encountering disturbances were significantly correlated with the largest patch index (LPI) from 1990 to 2020. The overall AD in the NRB has increased, especially in Haikou. Urbanization is the main factor for an increase in AD. The ecological and environmental management and monitoring in the basin need to be strengthened.

Suitability assessment for forest landscape restoration based on species diversity conservation

Forest landscape fragmentation poses a significant challenge to the conservation of species diversity. Evaluating the suitability of forest landscape restoration (FLR) becomes essential as it promotes effective management of forest resources and protects species diversity. This study focused on deploying and testing a suitability evaluation framework system for FLR in the Saihanba area of Hebei, China. The framework system incorporated factors such as land cover type, landscape structure, soil quality, and topography. Using the matter-element model, the study evaluated the restoration suitability and identified priority restoration areas. The results revealed that land cover type and landscape structure were the primary factors influencing FLR in the study area. The suitable area for FLR in the study area was about 519.20 km2, accounting for 55.55% of the total area. The area of moderate, marginal, and unsuitable restoration accounted for 17.30%, 23.96%, and 3.18% of the study area, respectively. The suitable restoration areas predominantly consisted of natural secondary forest characterized by large patch areas, short distances between patches, and complex patch shapes. In the study area, the objective of FLR should be protect large and complex shaped patches of natural secondary forests for better conservation of species diversity. The FLR suitability evaluation conducted in this study provide a valuable guidance for promoting species-diversity conservation and restoration of forest ecosystems at the landscape scale in the study area and other similar regions.

Effects of climate change on Lepidoptera pollen loads and their pollination services in space and time.

Shifts in flowering time among plant communities as a result of climate change, including extreme weather events, are a growing concern. These plant phenological changes may affect the quantity and quality of food sources for specialized insect pollinators. Plant-pollinator interactions are threatened by habitat alterations and biodiversity loss, and changes in these interactions may lead to declines in flower visitors and pollination services. Most prior research has focused on short-term plant-pollinator interactions, which do not accurately capture changes in pollination services. Here, we characterized long-term plant-pollinator interactions and identified potential risks to specialized butterfly species due to habitat loss, fragmented landscapes, and changes in plant assemblages. We used 21years of historical data from museum specimens to track the potential effects of direct and indirect changes in precipitation, temperature, monsoons, and wildfires on plant-pollinator mutualism in the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada. We found decreased pollen richness associated with butterflies within sites, as well as an increase in pollen grain abundance of drought-tolerant plants, particularly in the past 10years. Moreover, increased global temperatures and the intensity and frequency of precipitation and wildfires were negatively correlated with pollen diversity. Our findings have important implications for understanding plant-pollinator interactions and the pollination services affected by global warming.

Ecosystem Integrity Remote Sensing—Modelling and Service Tool—ESIS/Imalys

One of the greatest challenges of our time is monitoring the rapid environmental changes taking place worldwide at both local and global scales. This requires easy-to-use and ready-to-implement tools and services to monitor and quantify aspects of bio- and geodiversity change and the impact of land use intensification using freely available and global remotely sensed data, and to derive remotely sensed indicators. Currently, there are no services for quantifying both raster- and vector-based indicators in a “compact tool”. Therefore, the main innovation of ESIS/Imalys is having a remote sensing (RS) tool that allows for RS data processing, data management, and continuous and discrete quantification and derivation of RS indicators in one tool. With the ESIS/Imalys project (Ecosystem Integrity Remote Sensing—Modelling and Service Tool), we try to present environmental indicators on a clearly defined and reproducible basis. The Imalys software library generates the RS indicators and remote sensing products defined for ESIS. This paper provides an overview of the functionality of the Imalys software library. An overview of the technical background of the implementation of the Imalys library, data formats and the user interfaces is given. Examples of RS-based indicators derived using the Imalys tool at pixel level and at zone level (vector level) are presented. Furthermore, the advantages and disadvantages of the Imalys tool are discussed in detail in order to better assess the value of Imalys for users and developers. The applicability of the indicators will be demonstrated through three ecological applications, namely: (1) monitoring landscape diversity, (2) monitoring landscape structure and landscape fragmentation, and (3) monitoring land use intensity and its impact on ecosystem functions. Despite the integration of large amounts of data, Imalys can run on any PC, as the processing and derivation of indicators has been greatly optimised. The Imalys source code is freely available and is hosted and maintained under an open source license. Complete documentation of all methods, functions and derived indicators can be found in the freely available Imalys manual. The user-friendliness of Imalys, despite the integration of a large amount of RS data, makes it another important tool for ecological research, modelling and application for the monitoring and derivation of ecosystem indicators from local to global scale.

Analysis of land use/ land cover changes and landscape fragmentation in the Baro-Akobo Basin, Southwestern Ethiopia

This study investigated the relationship between land use/land cover (LULC) changes and forested landscape fragmentation in the southwestern region of Ethiopia. Satellite images from 1986, 2002 and 2019 were collected and analyzed using standard procedures in ERDAS 2015 software. Fragstat 4.2.1 software was utilized to assess landscape fragmentation by examining a raster datasets derived from the classified LULC map over the research period. The study identified seven LULC classes in the study area. Findings revealed a substantial reduction in shrubland by 46.3%, dense forest by 23.75%, open forest by 17.3%, and wetland by 32.63%, while cropland increased by 38.06%, agroforestry by 20.29%, and settlements by 163.8% during the study period. These changes varied across different agroecological zones and slope gradients. Landscape metrics results indicated an increase in the number of patches and patch density for all LULC classes, demonstrating significant fragmentation of the landscape. The largest patch index, mean patch areas, and the percentage of landscape occupied by open forest, dense forest, shrubland, and wetland declined as a result of conversion to cropland, agroforestry, and settlement. Conversely, the largest patch index, the mean patch area and the percentage of the landscape occupied by agroforestry, cropland and settlement increased, indicating their increasing dominance in the landscape over the study periods. The findings highlighted the potential deleterious impacts of ongoing land use change and fragmentation on the environment, ecosystem function and local livelihoods. Therefore, it is crucial to implement appropriate conservation efforts and sustainable land management practices to mitigate the rapid change and fragmentation of land use and its negative impacts on sub-watershed ecosystems.

Importance of riparian vegetation and wood-pastures in the maintenance of bat assemblages in a highly fragmented landscape in Veracruz, Mexico

Abstract To investigate whether trees and palms scattered in pastures contribute to the maintenance of bat assemblages in landscapes highly fragmented by livestock farming activities, we evaluated the bat assemblages and foraging guilds between wooded pastures and riparian vegetation. Using mist nets, we captured 1013 bats from 29 species and four taxonomic families. We found that the abundance, richness, and composition of bat species were not significantly different between vegetation types. Frugivores were the most abundant guild, and their abundance did not differ between vegetation types, indicating that wood-pastures allow the presence of these bats in the landscape. On the other hand, insectivores were more abundant in riparian vegetation and, interestingly, nectarivores were more abundant in pastures, likely due to the great plasticity of species of the genus Glossophaga. Our results are encouraging, since they demonstrate that a rustic pasture management that promoting the presence of scattered trees and palms along with belts of riparian vegetation, allows the maintenance of bat assemblages in a highly fragmented landscape.

Genetic diversity and population structure of the endangered saproxylic beetle L. cervus in a fragmented landscape

Abstract Despite the significance of saproxylic beetle species for ecosystems, the investigation of fine‐scale population genetics within the stag beetle, Lucanus cervus, remains notably limited. Because of their limited dispersal distances and habitat fragmentation, high genetic structure and low genetic diversity are expected in its populations. To evaluate the impact of habitat fragmentation on genetic diversity and structure, we examined 150 specimens of L. cervus from three sites in western Poland: two forest stands and one stand located in an Oak avenue. We utilised 19 microsatellite DNA loci for this examination. Results of neighbour‐joining analysis and principal coordinates analysis, values of differentiation indexes (G'ST, D(Jost) and FST) and rare/private allele frequencies indicated weak genetic differentiation among individuals collected from the tree sites. A spatial component to the genetic structure was identified through STRUCTURE (LOCPRIOR), isolation by distance tests and spatial autocorrelation analysis. The genetic diversity remained relatively high (HE: 0.49–0.51), with no inbreeding observed and no significant differences in mean relatedness among individuals from sampling sites. Limited genetic differentiation between the individuals of L. cervus from the investigated sites may result from a lag time since fragment isolation, unrestricted gene flow and marker/sample size limitations. Though weak, the significant differentiation between two of the sites may be linked to environmental differences and distance. Genetic data support treating individuals from forests as a single management unit. Non‐invasive sampling suffices for genetic studies, but achieving balanced sampling is crucial for precise historical demography estimates of endangered species.

Predictors of female American black bear body mass in an anthropogenic landscape

AbstractAnthropogenic pressure, such as urbanization and habitat loss, can wield many effects on wildlife that radiate through ecosystems. Large carnivores tend to experience these effects more severely than other species, diminishing their viability and altering ecosystem function by suppressing their role as an apex predator. Yet opportunistic carnivores that rely on an omnivorous diet can sometimes take advantage of anthropogenic food and improve their fitness prospects. We quantified the effect of phenotypic and ecological factors on female body mass of the American black bear (Ursus americanus) in New Jersey, USA. Habitat and reliable mast crops in New Jersey keep adult female black bear body mass and reproduction higher than many parts of the United States, and historically, female black bears in the mid‐Atlantic states tend to be larger than in other parts of their range. We used data collected from den surveys (n = 317) in northern New Jersey from 1984 to 2019 to examine the shared roles of climate, anthropogenic pressure (human food subsidies, harvest), habitat composition and configuration, natural food availability (hard mast production), and bear characteristics (age, history of human–black bear conflict) on female black bear body mass using generalized linear mixed models. Adult female body mass was heaviest with increased availability of cultivated crop and within low‐intensity developed land covers, suggesting anthropogenic food subsidies found in these 2 land cover types are contributing to female overall body mass. A history of conflict with humans explained heavier females, and a quadratic effect of age on body mass supported a senescent decline in adult female body mass later in life. Our results suggest that access to specific land cover types (i.e., crops, low‐intensity developments) that provide a diversity of food (e.g., corn, soft and hard mast) and support low human densities, explains female black bear body mass in a fragmented landscape.

China’s safe and just space during 40 years of rapid urbanization and changing policies

ContextChina’s high-speed economic development was accompanied by rapid urbanization for forty years, guided by a series of changing policies enacted by the central government. However, did China become more sustainable both economically and environmentally? Or more specifically, did it operate within or towards a safe and just space (SJS)? Although numerous relevant studies exist, these questions have not been adequately addressed, and a multi-scale landscape perspective is needed.ObjectivesThe main objective of this study was to examine China’s urbanization trends, associated institutional changes, and their impacts on the nation’s sustainability trajectory during the past four decades. Specifically, we intended to analyze the impacts of urbanization and related policies on the spatial patterns, temporal trends, shortfalls, and complex nexus of the different dimensions of SJS across scales in China.MethodsWe apply the SJS framework, which integrates eight environmental ceilings and seven social justice foundations, to examine China’s urbanization, socioeconomic dynamics, and institutional changes, as well as their impacts on sustainability at multiple spatial scales. Segmented regression and correlation analysis were used to analyze the relationship of SJS with landscape urbanization and governance across China.ResultsSince the implementation of China’s Western Development Plan, China has faced increasing challenges of overshoots in CO2 emissions, phosphorus and nitrogen loading, ecological footprint, and material footprint on a per capita basis. However, our analysis showed that, by 2015, China met nearly all basic social justice needs. The pattern of SJS showed geospatial gradients of increasing social justice (except material footprint), multi-footprints, and CO2 from eastern to central, northeastern, and western regions, and from developed to developing provinces. The tradeoffs between social justice, environmental safety, and regional equality remain pronounced across heterogeneous landscapes with different levels of urbanization. The western region’s material footprint expanded enormously, but mainly for consumption in the eastern region of China.ConclusionsChina’s development in the past four decades is characterized by enormous economic growth, rapid urbanization, much improved living standards, highly fragmented landscapes, and increasing environmental problems. To promote sustainability, China should continue to implement the strategy of high-quality development and promote ecological civilization. Regional landscape-based approaches are needed to explicitly recognize geospatial heterogeneity and disparities, and better understand the urbanization-governance-landscape nexus for promoting a safer and more just China.

Geometric effects of fragmentation are likely to mitigate diversity loss following habitat destruction in real‐world landscapes

AbstractAimHabitat conversion is the number one threat to biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity due to habitat loss might be exacerbated if species are harmed by fragmentation per se—the breaking apart of natural habitat that remains (hereafter fragmentation). However, the evidence that species are harmed by habitat fragmentation is mixed. Studies at the patch scale tend to show that fragmentation reduces diversity due to negative demographic effects on species' dispersal, survival and fecundity. In contrast, studies at the landscape scale tend to show that fragmentation increases diversity. This discrepancy may be partly due to geometric effects, defined as greater species turnover between patches in more fragmented landscapes. Although these effects have been demonstrated theoretically and are expected to be stronger across larger spatial extents, it is unclear whether they are likely to occur in real‐world settings with both realistic landscape patterns and communities. Here, we investigated the possibility of geometric effects using simulations combined with real‐world landscape and community data.LocationNew Jersey, northeastern USA.Time periodCurrent.Taxa studiedBees.MethodsWe focused on landscape sizes within the typical range for protected areas (36–576 ha), simulated forest loss using real landscape patterns, and simulated forest‐bee communities based on field data we collected.ResultsWe found weak but positive effects of fragmentation: immediately following forest destruction, the most fragmented forests harboured up to 7.3% more species than the least fragmented forests of the same area, in agreement with observational studies of biodiversity along fragmentation gradients. In contrast to expectations, however, the overall effects of fragmentation did not change with spatial extent.ConclusionsOur results suggest that fragmentation can mitigate biodiversity loss immediately following habitat destruction, but that the benefits do not vary strongly with spatial extent in real‐world landscapes and at extents relevant to land management.