Fractured Rock Matrix Research Articles

Crack density, saturation rate and porosity at the 2001 Bhuj, India, earthquake hypocenter: a fluid-driven earthquake?

Quantitative estimates of the crack density ( ϵ), saturation rate ( ξ) and porosity ( ψ) parameters from seismic velocities ( V p, V s) and Poisson’s ratio ( σ) in the 2001 Bhuj earthquake area in western India indicate that the 2001 Bhuj earthquake hypocenter is associated with high- ϵ, high- ξ and high- ψ in the depth range of about 23–28 km, extending 15–30 km laterally. These anomalies may be due to a fluid-filled, fractured rock matrix, which might have contributed to trigger the 2001 Bhuj earthquake in the intraplate, stable continental region of the Indian Peninsula. This feature is similar to that of the 1995 Kobe earthquake [D. Zhao et al., Science 274 (1996) 1891–1894]. High- ψ areas are generally consistent with high- ϵ areas, but high- ξ areas have a wider distribution, indicating that micro-cracks exist in more localized areas within the crust, and that permeation of fluids in the hypocenter zone might have occurred extensively through the intergranular and fractured pores due to hidden intersecting fault geometry. Here we suggest the possibility that earthquake occurrence is closely related to in situ material heterogeneities, rather than stress conditions alone.

A dual fracture model to simulate large-scale flow through fractured rocks

Discrete fracture network models can be used to study groundwater flow in fractured rock masses. However, one may find that it is not easy to apply such models to practical projects as it is difficult to investigate every fracture and measure its hydraulic parameters. To overcome such difficulties, a dual fracture model is proposed. Taking into account the hydraulic characteristics of the various elements of the fracture system, a hydrogeological medium is assumed to consist of two components: the dominant fracture network and the fractured rock matrix. As the dominant fracture network consists of large fractures and faults, it controls the groundwater flow in rock masses. Depending on the permeabilities of the in-fill materials, these fractures and faults may serve as channels or barriers of the flow. The fractured rock matrix, which includes rock blocks and numerous small fractures, plays a secondary role in groundwater flow in such medium. Although the small fractures and rock blocks possess low permeability, their numbers and their total porosity are relatively large. Therefore, they provide large volume for groundwater storage. In this paper, the application of the proposed model to simulate the groundwater flow for a hydropower station before and after reservoir storage is reported. The implications of the results on the design of the station are also highlighted.Key words: seepage flow, dual fracture model, dominant fracture, fractured rock matrix, case studies, rock-filled dam.

The 2001 Bhuj earthquake: Tomographic evidence for fluids at the hypocenter and its implications for rupture nucleation

The January 26, 2001 Bhuj earthquake (Mw 7.6) is one of the most catastrophic Indian earthquakes. We have investigated the 3‐D seismic velocity and Poisson's ratio structures of the Bhuj source area to understand the probable cause of triggering the earthquake. We used 1948 P and 1865 S‐wave high‐quality arrival times from 331 aftershocks recorded at a temporary seismic network. Significant variations up to 5% in velocity and 10% in Poisson's ratio are revealed in the aftershock area. The mainshock is located in a distinctive zone characterized by high‐Vp, low‐Vs and high Poisson's ratio (σ) in the depth range of 20 to 30 km and extending 15 to 30 km laterally. This feature is very similar to that of the 1995 Kobe earthquake [Zhao et al., 1996]. The anomaly may be due to a fluid‐filled, fractured rock matrix, which might have contributed to the initiation of the Bhuj earthquake.

Tracer Penetration into Welded Tuff Matrix from Flowing Fractures

Field and laboratory tracer experiments were conducted to investigate the extent of tracer imbibition and penetration into unsaturated, fractured rock matrix at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Field experiments were carried out in the Exploratory Studies Facility (ESF), an underground tunnel at Yucca Mountain. Water containing dye was released into horizontal boreholes drilled into the wall of the ESF main drift. The region was then mined to observe the flow pathways and to collect dye-stained rock samples for subsequent laboratory quantification. Dye concentration profiles in the rock, measured using a newly developed sampling technique, showed that liquid flowing through the fractures penetrated into the matrix to a depth of several millimeters. Laboratory studies of tracer penetration into the rock matrix were conducted using tracer-free rock samples, collected from the same hydrogeologic unit and machined into cylindrical cores. Tracer-imbibition tests were performed on cores at two different initial water saturations with both sorbing (dyes) and nonsorbing tracers. The travel distance for sorbing dyes was a few millimeters after ∼16 to 20 h, similar to the extent measured in samples from the field test. The nonsorbing bromide front coincided with the wetting front in the rock core at the initial water saturation of 12%, and the imbibition depth agreed very well with the prediction, using independently measured properties. At the high initial water saturation of 76%, the bromide front lagged significantly behind the wetting front. Sorption coefficients for the dyes in the partially saturated core samples were calculated using two independent approaches, based on tracer travel-distance and mass-distribution calculations, and were found to yield comparable results. Utilization of nonsorbing tracers with different molecular sizes helped to identify the effects of pore-size restriction on tracer transport during imbibition. The results from this work have a direct application to radionuclide transport at Yucca Mountain, and the methods presented are broadly applicable to the investigation of water and solute transport in unsaturated rock.

Tracer Penetration into Welded Tuff Matrix from Flowing Fractures

Field and laboratory tracer experiments were conducted to investigate the extent of tracer imbibition and penetration into unsaturated, fractured rock matrix at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. Field experiments were carried out in the Exploratory Studies Facility (ESF), an underground tunnel at Yucca Mountain. Water containing dye was released into horizontal boreholes drilled into the wall of the ESF main drift. The region was then mined to observe the flow pathways and to collect dye‐stained rock samples for subsequent laboratory quantification. Dye concentration profiles in the rock, measured using a newly developed sampling technique, showed that liquid flowing through the fractures penetrated into the matrix to a depth of several millimeters. Laboratory studies of tracer penetration into the rock matrix were conducted using tracer‐free rock samples, collected from the same hydrogeologic unit and machined into cylindrical cores. Tracer‐imbibition tests were performed on cores at two different initial water saturations with both sorbing (dyes) and nonsorbing tracers. The travel distance for sorbing dyes was a few millimeters after ∼16 to 20 h, similar to the extent measured in samples from the field test. The nonsorbing bromide front coincided with the wetting front in the rock core at the initial water saturation of 12%, and the imbibition depth agreed very well with the prediction, using independently measured properties. At the high initial water saturation of 76%, the bromide front lagged significantly behind the wetting front. Sorption coefficients for the dyes in the partially saturated core samples were calculated using two independent approaches, based on tracer travel‐distance and mass‐distribution calculations, and were found to yield comparable results. Utilization of nonsorbing tracers with different molecular sizes helped to identify the effects of pore‐size restriction on tracer transport during imbibition. The results from this work have a direct application to radionuclide transport at Yucca Mountain, and the methods presented are broadly applicable to the investigation of water and solute transport in unsaturated rock.

Multicomponent reactive transport in discrete fractures: II: Infiltration of hyperalkaline groundwater at Maqarin, Jordan, a natural analogue site

A numerical multicomponent reactive transport model described fully in Steefel and Lichtner (1998)[Steefel, C.I., Lichtner, P.C., 1998. Multicomponent reactive transport in discrete fractures, I. Controls on reaction front geometry. J. Hydrol. (in press)] is used to simulate the infiltration of hyperalkaline groundwater along discrete fractures at Maqarin, Jordan, a site considered as a natural analogue to cement-bearing nuclear waste repositories. In the Eastern Springs area at Maqarin, two prominent sets of sub-parallel fractures trending NW–SE are approximately perpendicular to the local water table contours, with the slope of the water table indicating north-westward flow. Extensive mineralogic investigations [Alexander W.R. (Ed.), 1992. A natural analogue study of cement-buffered, hyperalkaline groundwaters and their interaction with a sedimentary host rock. NAgrA Technical Report (NTB 91-10), Wettingen, Switzerland; Milodowski, A.E., Hyslop, E.K., Pearce, J.M., Wetton, P.D., Kemp, S.J., Longworth, G., Hodginson, E., and Hughes, C.R., 1998. Mineralogy and geochemistry of the western springs area. In: Smellie, J.A.T. (ed.), 1998: Maqarin Natural Analogue Study: Phase III. SKB Technical Report TR98-04, Stockholm, Sweden] indicate that the width of intense rock alteration zone bordering the fractures changes from about 4 mm at one locality (the M1 sampling site) to approximately 1 mm 100 m to the north-west in the flow direction (the M2 site), suggesting a lessening of alteration intensity in that direction. Using this information, the dimensionless parameter δ v/φ D′ (φ=porosity, D′=effective diffusion coefficient in rock matrix, δ=fracture aperture, and v=fluid velocity in the fracture) and measurements of the local hydraulic head gradient and effective diffusion coefficient in the rock matrix, a mean fracture aperture of 0.194 mm is calculated assuming the cubic law applies. This information, in combination with measured groundwater compositions at the Maqarin site, is used as input for numerical simulations of the hyperalkaline groundwater infiltration along fractures. The width of the alteration zones in the rock matrix bordering fractures is also used to constrain mineral dissolution rates in the field. The simulations predict that ettringite [Ca 6Al 2(SO 4) 3(OH) 12·26H 2O] with lesser amounts of hillebrandite and tobermorite (hydrated calcium silicates or CSH phases) will be the dominant alteration products forming at the expense of the primary silicates in the rock matrix and fracture, in agreement with observations at the Maqarin site. The simulations also come close to matching the pH of water samples collected along fractures at the M1 and M2 sites, with a fracture aperture of 0.22 mm giving the closest match with the pH data (within 13% of the value indicated by the rock matrix alteration widths). The simulations suggest two possible scenarios for the time evolution of the fracture–rock matrix system. Where rate constants for secondary mineral precipitation reactions are the same in both the rock matrix and fracture, the rock matrix tends to become completely cemented before the fracture. This results in a downstream migration of the hyperalkaline plume. In contrast, if rates are as little as one order of magnitude higher in the fracture than in the rock matrix, it is possible to seal the fracture first, thus causing the mineral zones to collapse upstream as a result of the reduction in fracture permeability. Sealing of fractures is observed at Maqarin and the simulations predict a mineral paragenesis in the fracture resulting from this scenario which is broadly compatible with field observations.

The 1995 Kobe earthquake: Seismic image of the source zone and its implications for the rupture nucleation

In order to understand what may have triggered the 1995 Kobe, Japan, earthquake and how the rupture proceeded after initiation, we determined high‐resolution three‐dimensional (3‐D) P and S wave velocity and Poisson's ratio structures in the Kobe epicentral area and relocated the aftershocks with the obtained 3‐D velocity model. We used 64,337 P and 49,200 S wave high‐quality arrival times from 3634 Kobe aftershocks and local microearthquakes recorded by both permanent seismic networks and portable stations that were set up following the Kobe mainshock. Significant velocity variations of up to 6% are revealed in the aftershock area. We found that areas with high aftershock activity are generally associated with low Poisson's ratio, which may be the strong and competent parts of the fault zone and were apt to generate aftershocks. The Kobe mainshock hypocenter is located in a distinctive zone characterized by low P and S wave velocities and a high Poisson's ratio. This anomaly exists in the depth range of 16 to 21 km and extends 15 to 20 km laterally. This anomaly may be due to a fluid‐filled, fractured rock matrix that contributed to the initiation of the Kobe earthquake. Our interpretation has been supported by many pieces of evidence from hydrological, geochemical, seismological, and geophysical investigations conducted at the Kobe earthquake region.

破面を有する岩盤内の流れ解析のための有限要素モデル生成に関する-考察

In this paper new hexahedral mesh generation methods are proposed for the finite element analysis of groundwater flow and transport through fractured rock matrix. Proposed methods are based on Delaunay triangulation to divide whole domain into tetrahedra, and successively tetrahedra are subdivided into hexahedra. Through numerical testing of the proposed mesh generation methods we examine their efficiency and also the numerical solutions.

Tomography of the Source Area of the 1995 Kobe Earthquake: Evidence for Fluids at the Hypocenter?

Seismic tomography revealed a low seismic velocity (-5%) and high Poisson's ratio (+6%) anomaly covering about 300 square kilometers at the hypocenter of the 17 January 1995, magnitude 7.2, Kobe earthquake in Japan. This anomaly may be due to an overpressurized, fluid-filled, fractured rock matrix that contributed to the initiation of the Kobe earthquake.

Fluids below the hypocentral region of Latur Earthquake, India: Geophysical indicators

A set of geophysical measurements and observations was undertaken to investigate the nature of the crust beneath the epicentral region of the deadly Mw 6.1 Latur earthquake of September 30, 1993. With an estimated focal depth of 2.6 km and the associated well defined but subtle surface ruptures, it is a rare stable continental region (SCR) earthquake with surface rupture. The focal depth of 69 out of 73 well located aftershocks is less than 5.5 km. Broad band (10³–10−3 Hz) magnetotelluric (MT) soundings reveal the presence of an anomalously high conductivity zone at a shallow depth range of 6–10 km. Consistent with this result is the observation of a Pc phase, lagging behind the Pg phase by about 0.6 to 0.8 sec in the aftershock seismograms indicating a low velocity layer (LVL) at 7 to 10 km depth. A Bouguer gravity low of 5 m.gal, nearly coincident with this feature, is also observed. Above evidences indicate that the focal zone of the Latur earthquake sequence is limited to depths of about 5 to 6 km in the upper crust by an underlying low‐velocity and high conductivity layer. We interpret this high conductive, low velocity layer as a fluid filled fractured rock matrix. The inferred stress regime, including due to uplift of the Deccan Plateau, triggered by erosion of basalt cover is likely to be confined mostly in the upper part of the crust. Existence of a low velocity, high conductivity fluid filled layer will enhance stress concentration in the uppermost brittle part of the crust causing mechanical failure.

Modeling of colloid and colloid-facilitated contaminant transport in a two-dimensional fracture with spatially variable aperture

Mathematical models are developed for two-dimensional transient transport of colloids, and cotransport of contaminant/colloids in a fracture-rock matrix system with spatially variable fracture aperture. The aperture in the fracture plane is considered as a lognormally distributed random variable with spatial fluctuations described by an exponential autocovariance function. Colloids are envisioned to irreversibly deposit onto fracture surfaces without penetrating the rock matrix; whereas, the contaminant is assumed to decay, sorb onto fracture surfaces and onto colloidal particles, as well as to diffuse into the rock matrix. The governing stochastic transport equations are solved numerically for each realization of the aperture fluctuations by a fully implicit finite difference scheme. Emphasis is given on the effects of variable aperture on colloid and colloid-facilitated contaminant transport. Simulated breakthrough curves of ensemble averages of several realizations show enhanced colloid transport and more pronounced fingering when colloids are subject to size exclusion from regions of small aperture size. Moreover, it is shown that an increase in the fracture aperture fluctuations leads to faster transport and increases dispersion. For the case of contaminant/colloids cotransport it is shown, for the conditions considered in this work, that colloids enhance contaminant mobility and increase contaminant dispersion.

“FRAC ure” — A simulation code for forced fluid flow and transport in fractured, porous rock

The 3D Finite Element Program FRACTure was developed with the specific aim of studying the coupling of interactive mechanisms in geoscience and in particular those relevant to the long term behaviour of a Hot Dry Rock reservoir. The flexible modular structure facilitates the addition of further processes and elements to the existing library and the handling of linear and non-linear constitutive laws and the calculation of their interactions. The Hot Dry Rock applications involve essentially forced fluid flow of cool fluid injected into a hot fractured rock matrix. A study of the relevant processes required finite element solutions for the hydraulic, thermal and elastic fields and especially their interactions. Particular attention has been paid to modelling the perturbations arising from poro-elastic and thermo-elastic effects in the rock matrix and of a non-linear, stress dependent joint closure law. The fracture network is designed in a way to represent nature as realistically as possible: fracture flow takes place along planes or in pipes (fracture intersections), porous matrix flow in 3D bodies. In devising the coupling scheme careful thought has been given to the different time constants for each physical process. Apart of simulating the coupled Hot Dry Rock behaviour, the code has been successfully practised in a variety of applications in geoscience: analysis of geoelectric measurements, radon transport, solute tracer tests, simulations of heat probe operations and hydrogeologic system modelling.