Blending Fraction Research Articles

Co-gasification characteristics of waste tire and pine bark mixtures in CO2 atmosphere

Co-gasification of waste tire and pine bark in CO2 atmosphere is reported at different blend fractions of waste tire (WT) and pine bark (PB) in the range of WT:PB = 0:1, 1:0, 1:1, 1:3, and 3:1 with a focus on syngas production. The results are reported along with the thermal decomposition behavior of the blends investigated using thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA) in Ar atmosphere. Characteristics of syngas from the gasification of blends were conducted using a fixed-bed reactor in CO2 atmosphere at 800 and 900 °C. Gasification behavior was examined with focus on evolved flow rate of H2, CO, total hydrocarbons (CmHn), and total syngas yield at the two temperatures for different blend ratios. CO2 consumption under the gasification conditions was evaluated. Gas yield efficiency and energy recovered in gasification were also calculated and compared. Synergistic effects in the syngas yield and the role of waste tire and pine bark were analyzed by a direct comparison of the results on experimental yields from WT-PB blends as compared to the correspondingly calculated aggregate results from the gasification of separate feedstock components at 800 °C and 900 °C. Results showed that increase in pine bark ratio increased peak flow-rate of H2, CO, total syngas, but decreased peak flow-rate of CmHn at the two temperatures. The syngas yield of gases at 900 °C were higher than that at 800 °C for a given blend ratio. The peak value of temporal CO2 consumption coincided with the peaks of CO yield for all the feedstocks except for pure waste tire at 800 °C and 900 °C. Gas yield efficiency of gasification at 800 °C reduced using blends, while no obvious influence was found at 900 °C. Increase in pine bark decreased the energy output both at 800 °C and 900 °C. These results provide an insight into energy recovery and waste treatment potential for both waste tire and forestry waste as well as CO2 utilization in the thermochemical conversion.

Autoignition Comparison of n-Dodecane/Benzene and n-Dodecane/Toluene Blends in a Constant Volume Combustion Chamber

The derived cetane numbers (DCNs) of the n-dodecane/benzene and n-dodecane/toluene blends were measured using a constant volume combustion chamber facility. The autoignition behaviors of the two sets of fuel blends, including ignition delay (ID) and combustion delay (CD) times, pressure traces, as well as the heat release rates at the DCN determination conditions, that is, 883 K ambient temperature and 20 bar ambient pressure, were also characterized. The results revealed that the n-dodecane/benzene blends have lower DCNs than those of the n-dodecane/toluene blends given the aromatic blending fractions. The two sets of fuel blends exhibit almost the same ID timescales with low aromatic blending fractions, but the ID of the dodecane/toluene blend becomes longer when the aromatic blending fraction rises to 60%. The CDs of the n-dodecane/toluene blends are slightly shorter at low aromatic blending fractions, and this difference becomes more apparent at a higher aromatic blending fraction. The n-dodecane/benz...

Method development for the analysis of PBMC-mediated killing of K562 cells by bovine colostrum and various fractions

Abstract Background Colostrum is the first milk that supplies newborns with immune supporting peptides. Due to its heterogeneous and variable characteristic, standardized assays for assessment of its biological activities are a challenge. Current set of studies were aimed to investigate the immune activity of bovine colostrum blends and different fractions as well as validate a method to assess variability across different lots. Methods Immune activity of a bovine colostrum blend and different fractions was evaluated by their ability to enhance PBMC-mediated killing of K562 cells. K562 cell killing was assessed by flow cytometry using DAPI. PBMCs derived from multiple healthy donors were initially investigated. Sample from the highest responder was used for subsequent studies. Different lots of product were assessed. Results Bovine colostrum blend and different fractions similarly reduced K562 cells number and these effects were generally greater than IL-2 control. Despite consistently effective at enhancing PBMCs-mediated K562 killing, the degree of the effect was significantly variable across different lots. These biological effects were dependable on the solubility of the product. Conclusion Assessment of PBMC-mediated killing of K562 cells by flow cytometry using DAPI is a reliable method for measuring immune activity of bovine colostrum and different fractions as long as product is well dissolved into solution and the same biological sample from a single donor is used for investigation of batch-to-batch variability.

Effect of Ignition Timing and Hydrogen Fraction in Natural Gas Blend on Performance and Exhaust Emissions in a DI Engine

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of ignition timing and hydrogen fraction on the performance and exhaust emissions of an engine. The engine was converted from port injection system to direct injection with enrichment hydrogen to natural gas at WOT condition and engine operation at 4000 rpm. The results showed that when hydrogen volume fraction was raised from 0 up to 50% at 20 bar injection pressure and at the ignition timing from 19 to 28 °CA BTDC, a good stratified effect was achieved. Also, performance results demonstrated that fuel conversion efficiency, power output, and torque were increased up to 3.7% and the brake thermal efficiency first rose and then fell with an increment of hydrogen enrichment to CNG. The peak cylinder pressure and temperature with the advance of ignition timing increased. In addition, the advance of the ignition timing caused NOx, HC, and CO emissions to decrease but with the increase in hydrogen fraction in the blend of fuel, HC, and CO dropped and NOx emission rose. This study concluded that the 30% blends of hydrogen and 21° BTDC ignition timing can optimize engine performance and emission without any engine modification.

A numerical study on the effect of thermal and charge stratification on the HCCI natural gas engine

The applications of homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine are still limited due to the absence of a definite means to control ignition timing and narrow the operating region. It was found that thermal stratification and charge stratification strategies bring forward good potential to achieve the staged combustion with reduced pressure-rise rates. In this study, a single cylinder engine and a CFD simulation are applied to investigate the combustion processes in the stratified HCCI engine. To obtain thermal and charge stratification on the combustion chamber, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), glow plug and simulated reformer gas (RG) of CO–H2 mixture are used. Increasing EGR at constant lambda line decreases the maximum achievable power, while at the constant increasing lambda at each constant EGR decreases the indicated mean effective pressure. EGR expands combustion duration hence smoother and quieter operation is achieved. Increasing reformer gas blend fraction considerably expands the operating region toward the lean side. Advancing combustion timing at constant energy flow and intake temperature stem from using glow plug in the combustion chamber, while with increasing mean in-cylinder temperature, combustion duration is prolonged. Abbreviations: 3D: Three-Dimensional; CAD: Crank angle degree; CI: Compression ignition; EGR: Exhaust gas recirculated; HCCI: Homogenous charge compression ignition; NOx: Nitrogen oxides; PM: Particular matter; PRFs: primary reference fuels; RG: Reformer gas; rpm: Revolution per minute; SI: Spark ignition; TB: Third body; THC: total hydrocarbon; UHC: Unburned hydrocarbon

Techno-economic analysis of renewable aviation fuel production: From farming to refinery processes

This study considered the techno-economic evaluations for the economic feasibility of jatropha derived hydro-processed renewable jet (HRJ) fuel, starting from the farming processes to the refinery (fruit-to-fuel) processes, based on the situations in Taiwan. The farming processes included plantation, growing and harvesting. The fruit-to-fuel processes included fruit dehulling, shell combustion, oil extraction, pyrolysis of press cake, oil refinery and product separation. In addition, the calculated minimum jet fuel selling price (MJSP) was compared to the cases from two different countries (Thailand and Cambodia) and to the scenario without cultivation. The MJSP of the Taiwan case, $6.25/L jet fuel, was higher than the cases of Thailand and Cambodia as well as the without-cultivation scenario. Moreover, according to the annual aviation fuel consumption from one of the aviation companies in Taiwan, the MJSPs of various blending fractions were calculated and compared with the cases of Thailand and Cambodia.

An experimental and numerical study of the effects of reformer gas (H2 and CO) enrichment on the natural gas homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine

Different approaches have been proposed to improve the combustion process and decrease pollutants in internal combustion engines. Among them, more attention has been paid to the use of the homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) concept. The benefits of this combustion concept are the simultaneous reduction of fuel consumption, nitrogen oxides (NOx) and soot emission together with thermal efficiency improvement. However, there are still tough challenges in the successful operating of HCCI engines, such as controlling the combustion phasing, extending the operating rang, and high unburned hydrocarbon and CO emissions. In this study, experimental work were performed on a single cylinder engine and the simulation results were compared to the experimental data. The comparison showed the numerical data had a good agreement with experimental data. By increasing the ratio of reformer gas, the maximum pressure and maximum pressure rise rate are significantly increased. Keeping the air-fuel ratio constant and increasing the ratio of the reformer gas reduce the IMEP and heat efficiency, also increasing reformer gas blend fraction decreased HC and increased CO emissions considerably. In addition, using reformer gas expands the operating range lean limit and increases the possibility of engine well operation in this region.

Development of the emulsions containing modified fats formed via enzymatic interesterification catalyzed by specific lipase with various amount of water

The aim of this work was to obtain and evaluate the stability of new emulsion systems, in which diacylglycerols derived from enzymatic interesterification of mutton tallow with hemp oil were used as emulsifiers. In order to achieve a higher content of the polar fat fraction in the final fat blend, a different amount of water was added to the reaction mixtures. The modified fats with a mixture of mono and diacylglycerols served as a fat base for emulsions. Based on the results of Turbiscan test, the droplet size, emulsion texture, and studies of rheological properties, it was found that addition of water to the reaction mixture in the range of 1.00–1.25%, wt./wt., caused the formation of a sufficient amount of emulsifiers stabilizing the dispersion system.The novelty of this work was to determine the optimal amount of water added to the interesterification of mutton tallow with vegetable oil, ensuring the synthesis of a high-efficiency emulsifying system. Another new aspect of this work was to show that the diacylglycerols obtained during such fat modification constitute effective emulsifiers for new stable emulsion systems that may find potential use as food emulsions (dressings) or cosmetic products dedicated to sensitive skin.

Weak lensing shear calibration with simulations of the HSC survey

We present results from a set of simulations designed to constrain the weak lensing shear calibration for the Hyper Suprime-Cam (HSC) survey. These simulations include HSC observing conditions and galaxy images from the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), with fully realistic galaxy morphologies and the impact of nearby galaxies included. We find that the inclusion of nearby galaxies in the images is critical to reproducing the observed distributions of galaxy sizes and magnitudes, due to the non-negligible fraction of unrecognized blends in ground-based data, even with the excellent typical seeing of the HSC survey (0.58" in the $i$-band). Using these simulations, we detect and remove the impact of selection biases due to the correlation of weights and the quantities used to define the sample (S/N and apparent size) with the lensing shear. We quantify and remove galaxy property-dependent multiplicative and additive shear biases that are intrinsic to our shear estimation method, including a $\sim 10$ per cent-level multiplicative bias due to the impact of nearby galaxies and unrecognized blends. Finally, we check the sensitivity of our shear calibration estimates to other cuts made on the simulated samples, and find that the changes in shear calibration are well within the requirements for HSC weak lensing analysis. Overall, the simulations suggest that the weak lensing multiplicative biases in the first-year HSC shear catalog are controlled at the 1 per cent level.

Introduction of Low-Molecular Digicidylurethane: Effect on the Properties of Oligoetherurethane-Diepoxide Compositions

The preparation of elastomers based on blends containing oligoetherurethane diepoxide (OUDE) and low-molecular-weight diglycidylurethane (DGU) has been described. For both the composition and cured elastomer, the dependence of the properties on the DGU fraction in the initial blend has been studied. It is shown that, at an equimolar ratio of DGU and OUDE, the physicomechanical characteristics properties of the elastomers have been shown to be significantly higher than those for OUDE-based elastomers. A 1.5- to 2-fold decrease in the degree of equilibrium swelling has been observed at a 0.5 mole fraction of DGU, if compared to OUDE-based elastomers.

Experimental study on non-vaporizing spray characteristics of biodiesel-blended gasoline fuel in a constant volume chamber

Detailed investigation of the spray phenomenology of liquid fuel injection is the primary step to understand better and predict the physical characteristics involved in fuel spray and atomization process. This study focuses on non-vaporizing transient spray characteristics of neat gasoline and biodiesel addition (10%, 20% and 40% by volume) to gasoline in three different ratios under low load and different injection pressure conditions. Different ambient gas densities and injection pressures were tested, which ranged from 10 to 20 kg/m3 and 40 to 120 MPa respectively, with a fuel temperature of 323 K. A z-type shadowgraph was utilized as an optical method to capture the highly transient spray development at 40000 frames per second and a modified image processing algorithm was implemented to determine the spray characteristics. The image processing results revealed that an increase in injection pressure significantly accelerates the spray development process while penetration length increases with the increment of biodiesel fraction. Differences in penetration lengths were much significant under lower injection pressure; however, a further increase in injection pressure diminishes the differences in tip penetration. The spray cone angle was increased for higher gasoline content which promotes a larger spray width and as a consequence, neat gasoline exhibited a larger spray area and volume. However, after a certain period of injection start, spray area and volume of neat gasoline and 10% biodiesel-blended gasoline were surpassed by 20% and 40% biodiesel-blended gasoline. In contrast, a decrease in droplet size was observed according to breakup regimes under high injection pressure and low ambient density. These results imply that the higher biodiesel blending fraction has poor air-fuel mixing capability compared to neat gasoline, and the risk of liquid impingement on the cylinder wall becomes higher if the blended-gasoline contains higher biodiesel percentage.

Temperature dependent separation of immiscible polymer blend in a melted state

The density and the spectral fingerprint of a compounded blend or composite vary widely depending on the type of the components and their composition. However, the currently used polymer separation techniques, such as density-based and optical sorting systems are not suitable for recovering these materials fully due to the physical-chemical bonding between the components. The application of a novel separation principle creates the opportunity to enrich the blend fractions to neat, homogeneous zones in a melted state by utilising centrifugal force. In this study three different types of plastics: high density polyethylene, polystyrene and polyethylene terephthalate were deeply investigated in order to understand the separability of their blends as a function of rotation time and melt temperature. The results showed that the separation of polymer mixtures and blends depends strongly on the viscosity and bulk density at a given temperature, and the initial particle size also has a significant impact.

The DEIMOS 10K Spectroscopic Survey Catalog of the COSMOS Field∗

Abstract We present a catalog of 10,718 objects in the COSMOS field, observed through multi-slit spectroscopy with the Deep Imaging Multi-Object Spectrograph (DEIMOS) on the Keck II telescope in the wavelength range ∼5500–9800 Å. The catalog contains 6617 objects with high-quality spectra (two or more spectral features), and 1798 objects with a single spectroscopic feature confirmed by the photometric redshift. For 2024 typically faint objects, we could not obtain reliable redshifts. The objects have been selected from a variety of input catalogs based on multi-wavelength observations in the field, and thus have a diverse selection function, which enables the study of the diversity in the galaxy population. The magnitude distribution of our objects is peaked at I AB ∼ 23 and K AB ∼ 21, with a secondary peak at K AB ∼ 24. We sample a broad redshift distribution in the range 0 < z < 6, with one peak at z ∼ 1, and another one around z ∼ 4. We have identified 13 redshift spikes at z > 0.65 with chance probabilities < 4 × 10−4, some of which are clearly related to protocluster structures of sizes >10 Mpc. An object-to-object comparison with a multitude of other spectroscopic samples in the same field shows that our DEIMOS sample is among the best in terms of fraction of spectroscopic failures and relative redshift accuracy. We have determined the fraction of spectroscopic blends to about 0.8% in our sample. This is likely a lower limit and at any rate well below the most pessimistic expectations. Interestingly, we find evidence for strong lensing of Lyα background emitters within the slits of 12 of our target galaxies, increasing their apparent density by about a factor of 4.

Experimental study of turbulent explosions in hydrogen enriched syngas related fuels

Abstract The role of hydrogen enriched fuel streams has come to the fore due to the use of syngas and/or biogas related feedstocks in gas engine or gas turbine based power generation applications. The hydrogen addition can enhance the fuel reactivity significantly, leading to improved combustion stability and widened flammable limits, but also raises safety concerns related to accidental explosions. The current work presents a systematic study of turbulent deflagrations generated in an obstructed tube with explosion overpressures and flame speeds measured. The focus is on the use of lean and ultra-lean fuel blends using binary H2/CO, H2/CH4 and ternary H2/CH4/CO mixtures. The H2 levels were varied between 0% and 100% at stoichiometries of 0.80, 0.60 and 0.40. The results highlight significant differences in explosion behaviour between the two blending components, with CO mixtures providing substantially higher overpressures than the corresponding CH4 blends. The results suggest that methane has a mitigating effect up to comparatively high hydrogen blending fractions and that synergistic effects between fuel components need to be taken into account. A new scaling parameter (β) is proposed that successfully linearises the peak explosion overpressure between different fuel blends in response to the hydrogen concentration. A scaling based on acoustic theory shows good agreement with experimental data and a simple method for estimating the overpressure change caused by variations in the mixture reactivity in a fixed geometry is also evaluated.

Sifting segregation of ideal blends in a two-hopper tester: Segregation profiles and segregation magnitudes

The main aims of this work were: 1) to increase the understanding of the segregation process that occurs during a segregation test that follows the ASTM sifting segregation procedure, and 2) to understand the effect of powder load, fines mass fraction and particle diameter ratio on the segregation of ideal blends. Binary blends of microcrystalline cellulose particles (mean diameter ranging from 161 to 661 μm) were used. The segregation tendency of the blends was characterized with a tester built according to the ASTM D 6940 standard. Additional experiments were performed using only the upper or the lower hopper of the tester, to better understand the contribution of the set-up to segregation. The fines fraction in the samples collected during the segregation experiments was determined with a QicPic particle size analyser, and segregation profiles were obtained. Most of the segregation occurred when the upper hopper was discharged into the lower hopper. For most of the profiles, an initial phase presenting a significant oscillation in the fines mass fraction was followed by a second phase where the fines mass fraction was rather constant and, finally, by a third phase where the fines mass fraction decreased. Segregation was quantified calculating complementary coefficients: the standard deviation of the normalized fines mass fraction, the fines mass fraction ratio of the last to the first sample, the fines mass fraction ratio of the sample with the lowest fines fraction to the sample with the highest fines fraction. The segregation amount was rather constant reducing the powder load from 838 to 665 g, while segregation largely increased when the powder load was further reduced to 435 g. The segregation tendency largely increased when the fines mass fraction in the initial blend decreased from 75 to 25% w/w. Finally, the segregation tendency increased when the particle diameter ratio increased from 1.9 to 4.1. The generated data are useful also for comparison when blends of increased complexity are used.

Understanding regulation in substrate dependent modulation of growth and production of alcohols in Clostridium sporogenes NCIM 2918 through metabolic network reconstruction and flux balance analysis

Flux Balance Analysis was performed for Clostridium sporogenes NCIM 2918 grown on sole glucose and glycerol or glucose-glycerol combinations at varied concentrations. During acidogenesis, glucose and glucose-glycerol combinations favored improved growth and butyric acid production. Glycerol fermentation was however marked by reduced growth and predominant ethanol synthesis. Further, with increase of glycerol fraction in glucose-glycerol blend, flux towards ethanol synthesis linearly increased with simultaneous decrease in butanol flux. Elevated ATP demand due to improved growth was satisfied by upregulated carbon flux towards butyric acid synthesis during both glucose and dual substrate fermentations. Possible repression of pyruvate carboxylase by glycerol resulting in downturn of carbon uptake flux towards TCA cycle through anaplerotic reaction may be responsible for reduced growth in glycerol fermentation. Ammonium acetate mediated induction of acetic acid utilization, during acidogenesis, led to excess acetyl-CoA generation and its subsequent metabolism to lesser reduced products, butyric acid or ethanol.

Investigation on combustion and emissions characteristics of a hydrogen-blended n-butanol rotary engine

In this paper, a rotary engine equipped with an n-butanol and hydrogen port-injection system was developed to investigate the combustion and emissions characteristics of a hydrogen-blended n-butanol rotary engine at part load and stoichiometric conditions. A self-developed hybrid electronic control unit was adopted to adjust the injection durations of n-butanol and hydrogen. The rotary engine was run under the conditions of 4000 rpm, a manifold absolute pressure of 35 kPa and a fixed spark timing of 45 °CA before the top dead center during the whole testing operation. The hydrogen volumetric fraction in the total intake was varied from 0% to 6.30%. The test results manifested that the brake thermal efficiency and chamber temperature were simultaneously increased with hydrogen addition. The hydrogen supplement obviously shortened flame development and propagation periods. Both chamber pressure integral heat release fraction versus crank angle were increased when the hydrogen fraction was enhanced. HC emissions were reduced by 54.5% when hydrogen volume fraction was raised from 0% to 6.30%, CO and CO2 emissions were also reduced after increasing hydrogen blending fraction. NOx emissions were mildly elevated due to the improved chamber temperature.

Capacity investment and the value of operational flexibility in manufacturing systems with product blending

A distinct feature of process industries such as food, chemical and consumer packaged goods is the blending of intermediates into finished goods. In the context of such manufacturing systems the levels of different inputs that can be blended to process a final good define the range of flexibility. Likewise, the cost for using (blending) different inputs defines the mobility element of flexibility. In this paper, we investigate capacity investment and the value of flexibility in the presence of such product blending constraints. We are motivated by recent case studies of food manufacturers, in particular, those manufacturers that seek to increase flexibility via blending of intermediates. We analyse stochastic programs under demand uncertainty of such manufacturing systems. We provide analytical insights into trade-offs when range and mobility are interdependent. Our analytical work gives structural insights into subtle complementarity and substitution effects between dedicated and shared resources in the presence of blending. We analytically show that there is a degradation in the cost performance of such systems with an increase in correlation. We characterise the optimal blending fraction that balances the benefits of higher range with higher costs (lower mobility). Our numerical work shows that a moderate level of blending can significantly improve flexibility and that well-known guidelines for designing limited flexibility change in the presence of blending. For example, blending, even if optimally designed, weakens the appeal of chaining configurations. Overall our work guides resource configuration in industries where product blending is an integral part of the production process.

Predicting the visco-elastic properties of polystyrene/SIS composite blends using simple analytical micromechanics models

This paper is concerned with the prediction of the viscoelastic properties of rubber filled polymer blends. The question asked was as follows. Can the temperature dependent viscoelastic properties of phase separated polymer blends be adequately predicted using only a rational two phase micromechanics based analytical model with no empirical fitting parameters? In particular can this be achieved using only a knowledge of the individual bulk phase properties and the blend microstructure, but without any further detailed polymer physics knowledge such as the presence of an interphase region or any additional nanoscale structures within the separated rubber phase with the properties different from those of the two bulk phases?Blends of a polystyrene matrix containing phase separated rubber inclusions (a polystyrene-polyisoprene-polystyrene triblock polymer (SIS)) were manufactured in a range of blend fractions (up to 20 vol % of the triblock co-polymer). Experimental measurements, for the storage modulus G′ and the loss tangent tanδ, of both the individual phases and the blends, were made using dynamic mechanical tests over a range of temperatures from −50 to +70 °C.Numerical predictions, of the same properties, were first obtained using the generalised self-consistent Christensen and Lo model which uses a simple representative volume element (RVE) of an isolated sphere of the minority rubber component in a surrounding sheath of polystyrene matrix embedded in a homogeneous effective medium. The agreement between the Christensen and Lo model and the experimental measurements, for G′ and tanδ, was found to be excellent for rubber contents up to 10%. For a 20% rubber content, an improved prediction was obtained by altering the RVE to include the observed effect of having a polystyrene central core in a number of the dispersed rubber zones at this rubber fraction, using the Hervé and Zaoui generalization of the Christensen and Lo model. Although conjoined (and therefore non-spherical) zones became more prevalent at the highest rubber content, use of the Tandon and Weng model showed that this shape anisotropy would not be expected to affect the viscoelastic properties.

A comparative study of co-combustion process of diesel-ethanol and biodiesel-ethanol blends in the direct injection diesel engine

Abstract This paper presents the results of a comparative analysis of co-combustion of diesel and biodiesel fuels with hydrated ethanol. The engine tests were conducted for an on-cylinder natural aspirated compression ignition engine operated at a constant rotational speed of 1500 rpm. Experimental investigations were also conducted to evaluate the effects of using hydrated ethanol as additives to diesel or biodiesel fuels to enhance performance, emission and combustion characteristics of direct injection diesel engines. The test engine powered by a diesel-ethanol blend (DE) was compared to a biodiesel-ethanol (BE) blend, characterized by higher values of IMEP and ITE. In the case of the DE blend, the highest ITE value was obtained for 35% of the ethanol fraction (35%). As for the BE blend, similar ITE values (31%) were obtained over the entire range of the ethanol fuel fraction in the blend. In the case of pure B100 or D100 the ignition delay achieves near the same value equal to 17 deg. The lower unrepeatability of engine cycle obtained for the BE blend combustion did not exceed 10%. The highest NO x emissions were obtained for the DE blend with 30% of the EF fraction (5.5 g/kW h). Emissions of THC and NO x increase up to 35% of the EF fraction in blend.