Fox Feces Research Articles

Lethal cysticercosis in a pet rabbit

A one-year-old neutered female crossbreed rabbit died unexpectedly after initially responding to symptomatic treatment over a three-month period for recurrent gut stasis, inappetence and lethargy. Postmortem examination revealed numerous fibrous...

The landscape of fear: Why some free-ranging rodents choose repeated live-trapping over predation risk and how it is associated with the physiological stress response

Live trapping is an essential element of field ecological studies. However, the act of trapping provides two types of conditional benefits (food from the bait when hungry, and refuge from a predator when threatened) against one type of drawback (confinement). Our understanding of how animals assess the two benefits against the lone risk determines how we interpret classic field studies in chemical ecology and wildlife management. Here, we studied wood mice responses to these risks and rewards of field trapping by examining experience through recapture and faecal corticosterone metabolites (FCM) as a physiological response indicator. Wood mice were live-trapped in two different plots subjected to two distinct phases: phase 1, absence of predator cues, and phase 2, in which traps were treated with red fox faeces. During phase 1, the recapture percentage was lower indicating that mice avoided traps while FCM levels in recaptured mice were higher. On the contrary, during phase 2, despite the total number of captures was lower we found an increase in the recapture percentage and FCM levels did not increase in recaptured mice. Our results suggest that under increased risk perception traps could be likely considered as a suitable shelter and thus, for some individuals the benefits of traps may outweigh their risks. In addition, we discovered that the effects of combining two stressors do not result in the addition of the response originated by each factor separately.

Effects of fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor URB597 in a rat model of trauma-induced long-term anxiety

The endocannabinoid neurotransmitter, anandamide, has been implicated in the central modulation of stress responses. Previous animal experiments have shown that inhibitors of the anandamide-degrading enzyme, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), enhance the ability to cope with acute and chronic stress. Here, we investigated the effects of the globally active FAAH inhibitor URB597 in a rat model of predator stress-induced long-term anxiety. Rats exposed to 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT), a chemical constituent of fox feces, developed a persistent anxiety-like state, which was assessed 7days after exposure using the elevated plus maze (EPM) test. Systemic administration of URB597 [0.03-0.1-0.3mg/kg, intraperitoneal (ip)] 2h before testing suppressed TMT-induced behaviors with a median effective dose (IC50) of 0.075mg/kg. This effect was strongly correlated with inhibition of brain FAAH activity (r2 = 1.0) and was accompanied by increased brain levels of three FAAH substrates: the endocannabinoid anandamide and the endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) agonists, oleoylethanolamide (OEA), and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA). The anxiolytic-like effects of URB597 were blocked by co-administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant (1mg/kg, ip), but not of the PPAR-α antagonist GW6471 (1mg/kg, ip). Finally, when administered 18h after TMT exposure (i.e., 6days before the EPM test), URB597 (0.3mg/kg, ip) prevented the consolidation of anxiety-like behavior in a CB1-dependent manner. The results support the hypothesis that anandamide-mediated signaling at CB1 receptors serves an important regulatory function in the stress response, and confirm that FAAH inhibition may offer a potential therapeutic strategy for post-traumatic stress disorder.

Rural and urban distribution of wild and domestic carnivore stools in the context of Echinococcus multilocularis environmental exposure

In zoonotic infections, the relationships between animals and humans lead to parasitic disease with severity that ranges from mild symptoms to life-threatening conditions. In cities and their surrounding areas, this statement is truer with the overcrowding of the protagonists of the parasites’ life cycle. The present study aims to investigate the distribution of a parasite, Echinococcus multilocularis, which is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis, using copro-sampling in historically endemic rural settlements of the eastern part of France and in newly endemic areas including urban parks and settlements surrounding Paris. Based on 2741 morphologically identified and geolocalized copro-samples, the density of fox faeces was generally higher in the surrounding settlements, except for one rural area where the faeces were at larger density downtown in the winter. Fox faeces are rare but present in urban parks. Dog faeces are concentrated in the park entrances and in the centre of the settlements. DNA was extracted for 1530 samples that were collected and identified from fox, dog, cat, stone marten and badger carnivore hosts. Echinococcus multilocularis diagnosis and host faecal tests were performed using real-time PCR. We failed to detect the parasite in the surroundings of Paris, but the parasite was found in the foxes, dogs and cats in the rural settlements and their surroundings in the historically endemic area. A spatial structuring of the carnivore stool distribution was highlighted in the present study with high densities of carnivore stools among human occupied areas within some potentially high-risk locations.

Investigation of Echinococcus multilocularis in Environmental Definitive Host Feces in the Asian and the European Parts of Turkey.

A study was carried out to investigate the presence of Echinococcus multilocularis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in two regions of Turkey—central Anatolia (in Asia Minor) and Thrace (in the European part of Turkey). A total of 405 putative fox feces were collected from central Anatolia (186 specimens in 59 locations) and from Thrace (219 specimens in 114 locations). All samples were examined by the flotation and sieving method for taeniid eggs, and positive and putative samples were further analyzed by multiplex PCR. In seven samples from three locations in central Anatolia (5.1%) and in one (0.9%) from Thrace, E. multilocularis DNA was amplified, and this result was confirmed with another PCR specific for E. multilocularis. In addition, Echinococcus granulosus s.l. was found in two (0.5%) of the samples. Although alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is known as a serious zoonosis in Turkey, this is the first field study detecting E. multilocularis in collected fecal samples documenting the environmental contamination with eggs of this zoonotic parasite.

High density of fox and cat faeces in kitchen gardens and resulting rodent exposure to Echinococcus multilocularis and Toxoplasma gondii.

The faeces of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes (Linnaeus), and the domestic cat, Felis catus (Linnaeus), can be responsible for spreading eggs of Echinococcus multilocularis Leuckart, 1863 and oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii (Nicolle et Manceaux, 1908) into the environment. The accidental ingestion of these eggs or oocysts, through consumption of raw fruits or vegetables grown in or in contact with contaminated soil, can lead to alveolar echinococcosis (AE) or toxoplasmosis in humans. The present study provides a quantitative assessment of the faecal deposition by foxes and cats in kitchen gardens where fruits and vegetables are grown and its consequences for zoonosis transmission. The density of definitive host faeces is considered as one of the main factors in infection risk for intermediate hosts. The density of fox and cat faeces, as well as the prevalence of both AE and toxoplasmosis in rodent populations (contaminated by ingestion of eggs or oocysts), were compared within and outside kitchen gardens. Our results showed that the mean density of fox faeces did not significantly differ between kitchen gardens and habitat edges (0.29 ± 0.04 faeces/m2 vs 0.22 ± 0.02 faeces/m2), the latter being known as an area of high fox faeceal densities. The density of cat faeces was significantly higher within the kitchen garden than outside (0.86 ± 0.22 faeces/m2 vs 0.04 ± 0.02 faeces/m2). The sampled kitchen gardens might therefore be considered as possible hotspots for both fox and cat defecation. Of the 130 rodents trapped, 14% were infected by at least one species of fox or cat intestinal parasite. These rodents were significantly more often infected when they were exposed to a kitchen garden. These results suggest that the deposit of fox and cat faeces in kitchen gardens would significantly impact the risk of human exposure to E. multilocularis and T. gondii. and should be prevented using effective means.

What's the risk? Identifying potential human pathogens within grey-headed flying foxes faeces.

Pteropus poliocephalus (grey-headed flying foxes) are recognised vectors for a range of potentially fatal human pathogens. However, to date research has primarily focused on viral disease carriage, overlooking bacterial pathogens, which also represent a significant human disease risk. The current study applied 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing, community analysis and a multi-tiered database OTU picking approach to identify faecal-derived zoonotic bacteria within two colonies of P. poliocephalus from Victoria, Australia. Our data show that sequences associated with Enterobacteriaceae (62.8% ± 24.7%), Pasteurellaceae (19.9% ± 25.7%) and Moraxellaceae (9.4% ± 11.8%) dominate flying fox faeces. Further colony specific differences in bacterial faecal colonisation patterns were also identified. In total, 34 potential pathogens, representing 15 genera, were identified. However, species level definition was only possible for Clostridium perfringens, which likely represents a low infectious risk due to the low proportion observed within the faeces and high infectious dose required for transmission. In contrast, sequences associated with other pathogenic species clusters such as Haemophilus haemolyticus-H. influenzae and Salmonella bongori-S. enterica, were present at high proportions in the faeces, and due to their relatively low infectious doses and modes of transmissions, represent a greater potential human disease risk. These analyses of the microbial community composition of Pteropus poliocephalus have significantly advanced our understanding of the potential bacterial disease risk associated with flying foxes and should direct future epidemiological and quantitative microbial risk assessments to further define the health risks presented by these animals.

Where is the TMT? GC-MS analyses of fox feces and behavioral responses of rats to fear-inducing odors.

TMT (2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline) is known as a component of fox feces inducing fear in rodents. However, no recent chemical analyses of fox feces are available, and few studies make direct comparisons between TMT and fox feces. Fox feces from 3 individuals were used to prepare 24 samples to be analyzed for the presence of TMT using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). When TMT was added in low amounts (50-2000 nmol/g), TMT was detected in 10 out of 11 samples. When no TMT was added, TMT was detected in only 1 out of 13 samples. In a second experiment, we tested the behavioral response of male Brown Norway (BN) and Wistar rats to either fox feces, a low amount of TMT (0.6 nmol) or 1-hexanol. TMT induced freezing in the rats, but fox feces induced significantly more freezing episodes and longer total duration of freezing in both rat strains. In experiment 3, male BN rats were exposed over several days to fox feces, rat feces, 1-hexanol, cadaverine, 2-phenylethylamine, and TMT, one odor at a time. Fox feces induced significantly more freezing episodes of a longer total duration than any of the other odors, with rat feces and 1-hexanol giving rise to the lowest amount of freezing. This finding, together with our inability to verify the presence of TMT in fox feces, indicates that the concentration of TMT in our fox feces samples was below 50 nmol/g. It may also be that other compounds in fox feces play a role in its fear-inducing properties.

CART neuropeptide modulates the extended amygdalar CeA-vBNST circuit to gate expression of innate fear

Innate fear is critical for the survival of animals and is under tight homeostatic control. Deregulation of innate fear processing is thought to underlie pathological phenotypes including, phobias and panic disorders. Although central processing of conditioned fear has been extensively studied, the circuitry and regulatory mechanisms subserving innate fear remain relatively poorly defined.In this study, we identify cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) neuropeptide signaling in the central amygdala (CeA) – ventral bed nucleus of stria terminalis (vBNST) axis as a key modulator of innate fear expression. 2,4,5-trimethyl-3-thiazoline (TMT), a component of fox faeces, induces a freezing response whose intensity is regulated by the extent of CART-signaling in the CeA neurons. Abrogation of CART activity in the CeA attenuates the freezing response and reduces activation of vBNST neurons. Conversely, ectopically elevated CART signaling in the CeA potentiates the fear response concomitant with enhanced vBNST activation. We show that local levels of CART signaling modulate the activation of CeA neurons by NMDA receptor-mediated glutamatergic inputs, in turn, regulating activity in the vBNST.This study identifies the extended amygdalar CeA-vBNST circuit as a CART modulated axis encoding innate fear. CART signaling regulates the glutamatergic excitatory drive in the CeA-vBNST circuit, in turn, gating the expression of the freezing response to TMT.

Wood mice modify food intake under different degrees of predation risk: influence of acquired experience and degradation of predator’s faecal volatile compounds

Behavioural changes in response to predation risk could increase prey survival, but there are associated biological costs. We assessed whether wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) were able to modulate food intake based on different degrees of predation risk by one of its main predators in the study area, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes). Furthermore, we also examined the influence of acquired experience and degradation of the predator’s faecal volatile compounds. Wood mice response was analysed by live trapping in four plots during a control phase where all plots were not treated, an experimental phase in which plots were subjected to different concentrations of fresh red fox faeces, and, finally, a post-treatment phase without renewing the faeces. All traps were provided with 4 g of roasted corn, and food intake was calculated based on the amount of bait that remained in each trap. Food intake significantly increased during the experimental phase, especially in the plot treated with the highest concentration of red fox faeces, and also throughout the post-treatment phase. Females and non-breeding individuals showed higher food intake. In addition, there was less food intake in recaptured than new individuals. Our results indicated that wood mice are able to detect different degrees of predation risk and respond accordingly by changing feeding behavioural response; the conflict between food intake and antipredatory behaviour seems to vary with faecal mark strength, which seems to lesson over time. Finally, experience acquired could also play an important role in their daily decision-making process.

Transmission ecology of taeniid larval cestodes in rodents in Sweden, a low endemic area for Echinococcus multilocularis.

Although local prevalence of Echinococcus multilocularis may be high, this zoonotic parasite has an overall low prevalence in foxes and rodents in Sweden. To better understand opportunities for E. multilocularis transmission in the Swedish environment, the aim of this study was to investigate other taeniid cestodes and to relate observed patterns to E. multilocularis. Cestode parasites were examined in fox feces and rodents caught in different habitats from four regions of Sweden. Arvicola amphibius and Microtus agrestis were parasitized with Versteria mustelae, Hydatigera taeniaeformis s. l., and E. multilocularis, whereas Myodes glareolus and Apodemus spp. were parasitized with V. mustelae, Taenia polyacantha, H. taeniaeformis s.l., and Mesocestoides spp. Rodents caught in field habitat (Ar. amphibius, Mi. agrestis) were more likely (OR 10, 95% CI 5-19) to be parasitized than rodents caught in forest habitat (My. glareolus, Apodemus spp.). The parasite preference for each rodent species was present regardless of the type of background contamination from fox feces. These results further support the importance of both ecological barriers and individual species susceptibility in parasite transmission, and indicate that future monitoring for E. multilocularis in the Swedish environment should focus in field habitats where Mi. agrestis and Ar. amphibius are abundant.

Comparison of different commercial DNA extraction kits and PCR protocols for the detection of Echinococcus multilocularis eggs in faecal samples from foxes

Effective and sensitive methods for the molecular detection of Echinococcus multilocularis in faecal samples of final hosts are crucial for the prevention and control of human alveolar echinococcosis and for studies on the epidemiology of the parasite. Little is known about the suitability of commercial test kits for isolating DNA of E. multilocularis from fox faeces and the performance of standard Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) protocols in relation to the quality of DNA extracted by these kits.We compared four different kits: ZR Faecal DNA MiniPrep™ (Zymo Research), FastDNA® SPIN Kit for Soil (MP Biomedicals), QIAamp® Fast DNA Stool Mini Kit (QIAGEN) and NucleoSpin® Soil Kit (Macherey-Nagel) for the extraction of DNA from E. multilocularis eggs present in faeces of foxes. Negative faecal samples were spiked with 600, 300, 150, 75, 37, 18, 9, 5 or 2 E. multilocularis eggs, and each egg concentration was tested 10 times with each of the DNA extraction kits. Each extracted DNA sample was amplified using three PCR protocols: i. conventional PCR (cPCR, Platinum®Taq, Invitrogen), ii. qPCR with the iQ™ Supermix (Bio-Rad) and iii. qPCR with the QuantiTect® Multiplex-Master Mix (QIAGEN).The highest analytical sensitivities for molecular detection of E. multilocularis eggs in spiked fox faeces were observed when combining either the QIAamp® Fast DNA Stool Mini Kit or the ZR Faecal DNA MiniPrep™ kit with the qPCR using the QuantiTect® Multiplex-Master Mix (Sensitivities 97% and 94%, respectively). Combinations including the remaining test kits (NucleoSpin® Soil Kit and FastDNA® SPIN Kit for Soil) showed a markedly lower analytical sensitivity for PCR examinations.The results of the present study indicate that it is of utmost importance to select suitable DNA extraction kits in combination with robust PCR methods or reagents to achieve acceptable analytical sensitivity in the molecular detection of E. multilocularis eggs in fox faecal samples.

Detection of Echinococcus multilocularis and other foodborne parasites in fox, cat and dog faeces collected in kitchen gardens in a highly endemic area for alveolar echinococcosis.

Echinococcus multilocularis, Toxoplasma gondii and Toxocara spp. are foodborne parasites whose eggs or oocysts are spread in the environment via canid or felid faeces. They can cause infections in humans following the raw consumption of contaminated fruit or vegetables. In this study, their occurrence was investigated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) in 254 carnivore faeces deposited in 94 kitchen gardens of northeastern France that were sampled between two and six times from October 2011 to April 2013. Less than 25% of the sampled kitchen gardens contained more than 75% of the collected faeces. Of the 219 faeces that could be attributed to an emitter, cat accounted for 58%, fox for 32% and dog for 10%. Echinococcus multilocularis was detected in 35%, 11% and 7% of fox, dog and cat faeces, respectively, and Toxocara spp. in 33%, 12% and 5.5% of cat, fox and dog faeces, respectively. Toxoplasma gondii was detected in 2/125 cat faeces and 2/21 dog faeces. The 34 faeces that tested positive for E. multilocularis were found in only 19 out of the 94 sampled kitchen gardens, and the 40 faeces that tested positive for Toxocara spp. were found in 28 of them. Consequently, some kitchen gardens appeared particularly at risk of human exposure to foodborne parasites, including E. multilocularis responsible for alveolar echinococcosis (AE), which is a serious zoonosis. In endemic areas, kitchen garden owners should be informed about the zoonotic risk linked to carnivore faeces deposits and encouraged to set up preventive measures.

Support for targeted sampling of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) feces in Sweden: a method to improve the probability of finding Echinococcus multilocularis.

BackgroundLocalized concentrations of Echinococcus multilocularis eggs from feces of infected red fox (Vulpes vulpes) can create areas of higher transmission risk for rodent hosts and possibly also for humans; therefore, identification of these areas is important. However, in a low prevalence environment, such as Sweden, these areas could be easily overlooked. As part of a project investigating the role of different rodents in the epidemiology of E. multilocularis in Sweden, fox feces were collected seasonally from rodent trapping sites in two regions with known parasite status and in two regions with unknown parasite status, 2013–2015. The aim was to evaluate background contamination in rodent trapping sites from parasite eggs in these regions. To maximize the likelihood of finding fox feces positive for the parasite, fecal collection was focused in habitats with the assumed presence of suitable rodent intermediate hosts (i.e. targeted sampling). Parasite eggs were isolated from feces through sieving-flotation, and parasite species were then confirmed using PCR and sequencing.ResultsMost samples were collected in the late winter/early spring and in open fields where both Arvicola amphibius and Microtus agrestis were captured. Fox feces positive for E. multilocularis (41/714) were found within 1–3 field collection sites within each of the four regions. The overall proportion of positive samples was low (≤5.4%) in three regions, but was significantly higher in one region (22.5%, P < 0.001). There was not a significant difference between seasons or years. Compared to previous national screenings, our sampling strategy identified multiple E. multilocularis positive feces in all four regions, including the two regions with previously unknown parasite status.ConclusionsThese results further suggest that the distribution of E. multilocularis is highly aggregated in the environment and provide support for further development of a targeted sampling strategy. Our results show that it was possible to identify new areas of high contamination in low endemic environments. After further elaboration, such a strategy may be particularly useful for countries designing surveillance to document freedom from disease.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1897-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Source tracking of Enterococcus moraviensis and E. haemoperoxidus.

Enterococci were detected occasionally in 100 L samples of water abstracted from a shallow aquifer in a natural dune infiltration area for drinking water production. Enterococcus moraviensis was the species most frequently identified in these samples. Because there are no existing reports of faecal sources of E. moraviensis and the closely related E. hemoperoxidus, this study aimed to find such sources of these two species in the dunes. Faecal samples from various animal species living in the vicinity of abstraction wells, were analysed for enterococci on Slanetz and Bartley Agar. From these samples, enterococci isolates (1,386 in total) were subsequently identified using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. E. moraviensis was found in the faeces of geese, foxes and rabbits. Also, E. haemoperoxidus was isolated from goose faeces. Using hierarchical clustering, the species composition of Enterococcus spp. isolated from abstracted water formed one cluster with the species composition found in geese droppings. A sanitary survey supported the indication that feral geese may provide a substantial faecal load in particular parts of this dune infiltration area, close to the water abstraction system. This study confirms the faecal origin of E. moraviensis and E. haemoperoxidus from specific animals, which strengthens their significance as faecal indicators.

Retrospective analyses of fox feces by real-time PCR to identify new endemic areas of Echinococcus multilocularis in France.

Alveolar echinococcosis is considered to be the most serious zoonosis in the Northern Hemisphere's cold or temperate regions. In Europe, the parasite has a sylvatic life cycle based on predator-prey interactions, mainly between red foxes and small rodents. Echinococcus multilocularis has been observed to have spread across Europe over the last three decades. In France, a westward spread of the parasite's known endemic areas has been described. In this study, a retrospective analysis of fox feces by real-time PCR was carried out in four départements not previously investigated and considered free along with two endemic control departments. The fox feces collected from 2000 to 2004 were analyzed by real-time PCR. Fecal prevalence in the two endemic departments of Doubs and Côte d'Or were estimated at 12% [6.4-20.0%] and 4.2% [1.1-10.3%], respectively. No positive samples were identified among the 72 feces collected in Drôme or the 112 from Allier, which is consistent with the very low expected prevalence should the parasite be present. Three positive samples were recovered in the Seine-Maritime and Hautes-Alpes départements, resulting in a prevalence of 3.5% [0.7-10.0%] and 2.5% [0.5-7.1%], respectively. From now on, Hautes-Alpes constitutes the new southern border of the endemic areas in France and confirms the southward expansion previously highlighted. Real-time copro-PCR proved useful in identifying new endemic areas even with low prevalence. Due to the spread of E. multilocularis in France and associated zoonotic risk, it is necessary to expand surveillance in order to fully define all the country's endemic areas. On a continental scale, the development and harmonization of surveillance programs are now needed in order to obtain a global overview of the presence of E. multilocularis and to tailor potential countermeasures.

Cycloviruses, gemycircularviruses and other novel replication-associated protein encoding circular viruses in Pacific flying fox (Pteropus tonganus) faeces

Viral metagenomic studies have demonstrated that animal faeces can be a good sampling source for exploring viral diversity associated with the host and its environment. As part of an continuing effort to identify novel circular replication-associated protein encoding single-stranded (CRESS) DNA viruses circulating in the Tongan archipelago, coupled with the fact that bats are a reservoir species of a large number of viruses, we used a metagenomic approach to investigate the CRESS DNA virus diversity in Pacific flying fox (Pteropus tonganus) faeces. Faecal matter from four roosting sites located in Ha'avakatolo, Kolovai, Ha'ateiho and Lapaha on Tongatapu Island was collected in April 2014 and January 2015. From these samples we identified five novel cycloviruses representing three putative species, 25 gemycircularviruses representing at least 14 putative species, 17 other CRESS DNA viruses (15 putative species), two circular DNA molecules and a putative novel multi-component virus for which we have identified three cognate molecules. This study demonstrates that there exists a large diversity of CRESS DNA viruses in Pacific flying fox faeces.

Surveillance and management of Echinococcus multilocularis in a wildlife park

The fox tapeworm Echinococcus multilocularis is the causative agent of alveolar echinococcosis, a severe zoonotic disease that may be fatal if untreated. A broad spectrum of mammalian species may be accidentally infected even in captivity. In April 2011, liver lesions due to E. multilocularis were observed during the necropsy of a captive-born nutria (Myocastor coypus) in a French wildlife park, leading to initiation of a study to survey the parasite's presence in the park. A comparable environmental contamination with fox's feces infected by E. multilocularis was reported inside (17.8%) and outside (20.6%) the park. E. multilocularis worms were found in the intestines of three of the five roaming foxes shot in the park. Coprological analyses of potential definitive hosts in captivity (fox, lynx, wildcat, genet, wolf, bear and raccoon) revealed infection in one Eurasian wolf. Voles trapped inside the park also had a high prevalence of 5.3%. After diagnosis of alveolar echinococcosis in a Lemur catta during necropsy, four other cases in L. catta were detected by a combination of ultrasound and serology. These animals were treated twice daily with albendazole. The systematic massive metacestode development and numerous protoscoleces in L. catta confirmed their particular sensitivity to E. multilocularis infection. The autochthonous origin of the infection in all the captive animals infected was genetically confirmed by EmsB microsatellite analysis. Preventive measures were implemented to avoid the presence of roaming foxes, contact with potential definitive hosts and contaminated food sources for potential intermediate hosts.

The smell of fear: innate threat of 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline, a single molecule component of a predator odor.

In the last several years, the importance of understanding what innate threat and fear is, in addition to learning of threat and fear, has become evident. Odors from predators are ecologically relevant stimuli used by prey animals as warnings for the presence of danger. Of importance, these odors are not necessarily noxious or painful, but they have innate threat-like properties. This review summarizes the progress made on the behavioral and neuroanatomical fundamentals of innate fear of the predator odor, 2,5-dihydro-2,4,5-trimethylthiazoline (TMT), a component of fox feces. TMT is one of several single molecule components of predator odors that have been isolated in the last several years. Isolation of these single molecules has allowed for rapid advances in delineating the behavioral constraints and selective neuroanatomical pathways of predator odor induced fear. In naïve mice and rats, TMT induces a number of fear and defensive behaviors, including robust freezing, indicating it is an innate threat stimulus. However, there are a number of behavioral constraints that we do not yet understand. Similarly, while some of the early olfactory sensory pathways for TMT-induced fear are being delineated, the pathways from olfactory systems to emotional and motor output regions are less well understood. This review will focus on what we know and what we still need to learn about the behavior and neuroanatomy of TMT-induced fear.

Kontamination landwirtschaftlicher Nutzflächen durch Hunde- und Fuchskot

The contamination with faeces from dogs and foxes was documented on 14 different grassland areas in the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, over one year. A total of 402 dog and 58 fox faecal samples were collected from the grasslands, further 236 faecal samples were retrieved from Robidog® units (disposal units for dog waste bags) in the immediate vicinity. The degree of fecal contamination per 100 m2 and year was 0.07-0.75 for dog samples and 0-0.06 for fox samples. Dog faeces from Robidog® units and grasslands contained stages of the following parasites, respectively (sedimentation/flotation method): Toxocara sp. (2.5%; 1.2%), Taenia crassiceps (with molecular confirmation; 0.8%; 0.2%), Capillaria sp. (0.4%; 0.7%), Trichuris sp. (0.8%; 1%), Isospora sp. (2.1%; 2%) and Angiostrongylus vasorum (0.4%; 0.5%). In fox faeces parasite stages were more frequently detected: 19% Toxocara sp., 8.6% Taenia crassiceps, 6.9% Echinococcus multilocularis, 60.3% Capillaria sp., 29.3% Trichuris sp. In two fecal samples from foxes, Taenia saginata eggs or Toxoplasmagondii oocysts were confirmed by molecular analyses, these findings may be explained as an intestinal passage after coprophagy of human or cat feces, respectively. Therefore, foxes can also indirectly play a role in parasite transmission to livestock.