Late Chalcolithic Research Articles

Arslantepe in the foreground: The economic and social role of the large blades at the end of the 4th millennium BC

This paper focuses on the study of large blade assemblages made from chert raw materials at the site of Arslantepe VI-A period (3500–3200 BCE). By applying an analytical approach combining raw material characterization (NM-PCI protocol), technological and use-wear analyses, and experimental archaeology, we discuss our results from a double perspective. At first glance, we demonstrate the great potential that this proxy offers for the reconstruction of technical systems and routine activities in late prehistoric sites. Secondly, we highlight the contribution of large blades for understanding socio-economic dynamics in case-oriented debates. Specifically, large chert blade study provides further pieces of the puzzle to characterize technical and economic behaviors of the social group settled on the mound of Arslantepe at the end of the 4th millennium BC. At this time, a palatine complex with centralized administration and symbols of power, were tools to boost social inequality.

Digital restoration and 3D visualisation of the early Neolithic pottery from Ryńsk, Poland

The archaeological site of Ryńsk in north-central Poland produced sound evidence of long-distance journeys of people and pottery from the 6th millennium BC in Central Europe by yielding a sophisticated ceramic footed bowl that can be traced to the Carpathian Basin region. Archaeology indicates that the earliest ceramic vessels had a different functional, social and ritual role, but it is difficult to convey information on the significant role of pottery in ancient societies in a way that would pique the interest of the general public. This paper presents the digital restoration and 3D visualisation of the footed bowl from Ryńsk and other accompanying ceramics that may assist in feeding the historical imagination and education about the ancient pottery making of the LBK people and can be used to provide a wider audience with new forms of engagement and interaction with the archaeological heritage of the region.

Six feet under – the Funnel Beaker megalithic graves under the Ahlen-Falkenberger Moor, Germany

Abstract In the Elbe-Weser Triangle, located in the north-west of Germany and framed by the rivers Elbe and Weser, a total of approx. 350 megaliths of the Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) have been identified. Despite their large number there is little knowledge about the monuments themselves, their architecture or their history of use. This lack of information is partly attributed to widespread destruction or disturbance of the megaliths located in the open landscape during the past centuries. Other monuments have been covered by bog or clay deposits of marine inundations and thus have not been investigated or even found, yet. However, due to intense draining measures within the bog area of Ahlen-Falkenberg, dist. Cuxhaven several megalithic graves were discovered in the past decades, revealing a protected burial landscape of the 4th and 3rd millennium BC. This paper focuses on three passage graves, which have been examined in the scope of a research project in the years 2019–2022. The fieldwork has brought to light well preserved elements of the original burial structures, including a protective massive stone packing around the chambers. We were further able to identify and typochronologically date different burial activities of the FBC, as well as activities related to people associated with the Single Grave Culture. The latter seem to have had massive impact on the monuments and their accessibility. In the light of environmental changes in the Neolithic, the reconstruction of the monuments biographies was attempted. In sum the monuments show individual, local and regional traditions that were embedded in a supra-regional FBC network.

Kurgan Phenomenon in the Southern Caucasus: Results of an Interdisciplinary Multi‐Method Remote Sensing Survey Along the Kurekçay Valley (Goranboy Province, Western Azerbaijan)

ABSTRACTThis paper presents the results of a pilot study that combines findings from satellite remote sensing analyses and an intensive interdisciplinary survey conducted in November 2021 on kurgans along the Kurekçay Valley, in western Azerbaijan. Through the integration of various methods, including historical and contemporary satellite and aerial imagery analysis, topographic mapping and geophysical prospections, this research remotely maps and quantifies the density, size, morphology and distribution of the burial mounds in the area. Unlike previous studies focusing solely on individual burial mounds, this investigation adopts a broader approach by contextualizing the kurgans within their respective landscapes. The results contribute to a deeper understanding of the physical and symbolic aspects and relationships of these structures, providing valuable insights into the enduring burial practices that shaped the funerary traditions of the Southern Caucasus during the 4th and 1st millennium BCE. Furthermore, this approach supports an assessment of the condition of the individual kurgans, thereby opening new perspectives to develop innovative plans to protect these burial mounds and their settings.

Sokolny VII – a New Site of the Early Neolite of the Republic of Mari El

The article presents the results of a study of the Sokolny XVII camp-site (Republic of Mari El). The physical and geographical characteristics of the location of the site are given and a brief history of the study is given. Information about the stratigraphy and planographic distribution of finds is presented. The authors publish data on palynological analysis. A ceramic complex consisting of 52 vessels is characterized. A study of ceramics manufacturing technology was carried out based on a historical and cultural approach. An analysis of the elements and motifs of the ornament is carried out. The ceramic and flint complex of the Sokolny XVII site typologically and technologically finds the closest analogies in the materials of the Early Neolithic of the Mari Volga region. At the same time, the collection contains some local features. In ancient times, at the site of the site there were mixed broadleaved and coniferous forests with a predominance of pine; linden and oak also played an important role in the composition of the forests. Data on the technical and technological analysis of ceramics indicate the existence of several types of initial plastic raw materials with uniformity in the formulation of the molding mass. The obtained radiocarbon dates, as well as existing analogies, help determine the time of existence of the monument in the second half of the 6th millennium BC.

Testing scale-dependent temporal and spatial biases in relative chronology using AMS 14C dating: A case study of Early–Middle Cucuteni-Tripolye sites in Southeastern Europe

Aiming at developing a syncretic chronology for Eneolithic sites in Romania, Moldova and Ukraine, this paper tests the hypothesis that relative material culture sequences will be preserved within lower-order taxonomic units and collapse within higher-order units. We examine relative sequences for sub-groups of the Cucuteni-Tripolye cultural complex (ca. 5050–2950 BCE) using Bayesian sequencing of extant and newly obtained radiocarbon dates. The traditional archaeological perspective holds that the space-time expansion of this cultural complex occurred in rapidly disseminated horizons, with little cross-regional variability in dating. Absolute dating efforts from the 1960s–2000s did little to clarify the situation, especially in the upper section of the Dniester river valley in Ukraine, where numerous older radiometric 14C dates present an improbably early chronology for sites of the Early and early Middle Tripolye periods (Tripolye A and BI). Here we present 21 new AMS 14C dates from early settlements in Southwestern Ukraine and Moldova, with results dating to the latter half of the fifth millennium and the beginning of the fourth millennium BCE. Eschewing the concept of monolithic horizons, we compile both old and new data into regionally distinct sequences, enabling a more nuanced examination of material synchronization and cross-regional settlement dynamics.

Sherds of societies: Quantitative and petrographic analysis of Neolithic ceramics in Northeast China

In China, Neolithic sites are routinely attributed to “archaeological cultures” through typological comparisons of complete pottery vessels. However, ceramic datasets have the potential to reveal more than a chrono-cultural attribution. Taking into account not only all the complete vessels but also all the sherds excavated from a site makes it possible to use quantitative analysis as well as morpho-stylistic and petrographic approaches to measure the heterogeneity of the ensemble and ask why and how it was formed. The Wutaishan site in Nong'an, Jilin province, located at the centre of Northeast China, was chosen to implement this methodology. The ceramology research on the complete pottery dataset excavated at this site sheds light on the long- and short-distance exchanges networks in Northeast China at the turn of the 4th millennium BCE, provides a new understanding of inter-site relations in the Yitong River valley, and opens perspectives on the interpretation of the functional spatial layout within the site itself.

New evidence for prehistoric ploughing in Europe

For the past four decades, the ‘Secondary Products Revolution’ model, i.e., the exploitation of animal resources that do not involve killing the animal, such as the production of milk and wool and the use of animals for physical labour has been the object of heated discussion between Neolithic scholars. According to this model, the use of animal strength arrived relatively late in Europe—during the socio-economic changes of the Late Neolithic in the 4th millennium BCE. Plough marks are the most convincing direct evidence of the use of animal traction. However, few are preserved making them relatively rare throughout Europe and dating them is difficult and often imprecise. Recent research at the Anciens Arsenaux site in Sion, Valais, Switzerland has revealed the presence of the oldest known plough marks in Europe, dating from the beginning of the 5th millennium BCE. They bear witness to the use of animal traction quite soon after the establishment of an agro-pastoral economy in the Alpine region. This is corroborated by recent archaeozoological studies and suggests that this important innovation could already be part of the Neolithic package introduced into Europe during the 6th millennium BCE.

Correction to: The First Monumental Burials in the 5th Millennium BC: Unresolved Questions About the Emergence of the ‘Passy Phenomenon’

Correction to: The First Monumental Burials in the 5th Millennium BC: Unresolved Questions About the Emergence of the ‘Passy Phenomenon’

Earthen stories. Cross-craft strategies in raw material procurement and production at the tell site of Arslantepe (Türkiye) during the 4th millennium BCE

Arslantepe, located in south-eastern Turkey, is a multi-period settlement with a rich history of habitation dating back to at least the late 5th millennium BCE and spanning into the Medieval period. Over millennia, the site underwent drastic cultural, socio-economic and political transformations, resulting in its current form as a 30-m-high artificial mound. This mound predominantly consists of earth, encompassing clay-based construction materials, assorted objects and discarded materials. This paper consolidates research on various earthen objects and fixtures from the site, investigating their material properties through X-ray Diffraction (XRD), X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), sediment micromorphology and ceramic petrography. The focus is on characterising the diverse earthen products as well as assessing differences and similarities in the procurement and manipulation of raw materials during the Late Chalcolithic period. Earth emerged as a pivotal resource for Arslantepe communities, showcasing diverse strategies of collection, manipulation and utilisation-a compelling example of cross-crafting strategies. The findings reveal a multifaceted body of knowledge intertwined with the exploitation of this resource, emphasising distinct technological expertise, environmental considerations, as well as cultural preferences and socio-economic factors. Ultimately, the integrated examination of cross-craft strategies in the 4th millennium BCE Arslantepe settlement provides a unique glimpse into communities of practice and social networks centred around the utilisation of earth, contributing to a deeper understanding of past societies.

The chronology of T-shaped antler axe technology in northeastern Europe

Abstract We present new AMS 14C dates and technological characteristics of an enigmatic osseous implement – the T-shaped antler axe. T-shaped axes (T-axes) are made of red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) antler beams with the perforation for a shaft through the removed trez tine. Our study centres on 33 axes from Belarus, Latvia and Lithuania, most of which were found during drainage of wetlands or sediment extraction in the 20th century, and thus remained unknown internationally. We successfully dated 19 of these artefacts, and here we compare their dates to published dates of T-shaped antler axes from western Europe (Belgium, The Netherlands, western Germany, Scotland), the southwestern Baltic (Denmark, northern Germany and northwestern Poland) and southeastern Europe (Ukraine). Radiocarbon results suggest the gradual spread of this specific antler tool producing technique from southern Europe towards the Baltic during the 6th millennium BC. The technological characteristics of T-axes in combination with the radiocarbon data enable us to preliminary discuss the chronology of aspects of T-axe production.

Direct evidence of plant consumption in Neolithic Eastern Sudan from dental calculus analysis.

The Neolithic communities of Eastern Sudan combined intensive pastoralism with plant exploitation as their main subsistence strategies. However, to date, it remains unclear which plant species were part of the human diet during the Neolithic. This contribution presents direct data on plant consumption in Eastern Sudan from the Early to Late Neolithic, obtained through the analysis of microdebris inclusions in the dental calculus of 37 individuals, integrated by dentoalveolar pathology analysis of 78 individuals, from the sites UA53 (4th millennium BCE) and Mahal Teglinos (3rd-2nd millennium BCE), located in the Gash Delta/Kassala region. Dental calculus inclusions indicate a diverse intake of cereals, legumes, and tubers during the Middle Neolithic, thus supporting the hypothesis of high reliance on plant resources. Dentoalveolar pathologies, possibly related to the consumption of carbohydrate-rich foods, have also been recorded. For the Late Neolithic, consistent with the shift towards aridity that occurred in the Middle/Late Holocene, dental calculus exclusively indicates the exploitation of sorghum and tubers-species well adapted to arid conditions-showing how the Neolithic communities modified their subsistence in response to environmental changes. Evidence of plant processing techniques, such as cooking/heating, was also revealed from the dental calculus analysis.

CHRONOLOGICAL STUDY OF COLLECTIVE BURIALS IN THE NORTHERN IBERIAN PLATEAU: ANALYSIS OF RADIOCARBON DATES ON HUMAN BONES FROM THE MEGALITHIC COMPLEX OF LA LORA (BURGOS, SPAIN)

ABSTRACTThis paper offers a temporal analysis of the megalithic group of La Lora in the context of northern Iberian Plateau megalithism. For this purpose, 67 accelerator mass spectrometry radiocarbon (AMS 14C) dates were obtained on human bone from the minimum number of individuals recovered from nine tombs. This is the first systematic dating project carried out in this dolmen group and has enabled the chronology of the main funerary series to be updated. The results reveal that the actual funerary use dates mainly to the 4th millennium BC, although, as deduced from the archaeological material, some tombs were reused in later periods. Additionally, the significant architectural polymorphism of the group, consisting mainly of simple dolmens and large corridor tombs, suggested a temporal evolution to monumentality. However, the dating shows a more complex reality, since it is likely that the large tombs functioned as funerary pantheons during the 4th millennium BC, characterized by a cyclical and recurrent use. In contrast, the simpler structures were preferred to be of shorter use and restricted to the first half of the 4th millennium.

Prehistoric salt production: Technological approach in ceramic studies

Numerous studies have been made on salt production in the European Iron Age, especially through broken low-fired clay artefacts known as “briquetage”. The vessels used in stoves are called salt moulds or salt containers. They serve both as crystallizer and mould for the salt obtained from concentrated brine. For the origin of salt production, archaeological evidences in Europe indicate that salt exploitation was intensified from the 5th millennium BC by using salt moulds in ceramic material. In this paper, we will present two studies conducted on “chaîne opératoire” of salt moulds making from two production sites, one in North-Eastern Bulgaria (Solnitstata, Provadia, c. 4700–4450 BCE), the other in West-Central France causewayed enclosures (c. 3400–2900 BCE). In both cases, the contexts in which these salt exploitations arose testify to an increase in social tensions.By focusing on the technical choices adopted in the manufacture and the use of these particular pots, we will see that for a same function several technical solutions are possible. However, we will attempt to define a general framework of technical choices and patterns observed in these pots which are often fragmented and rarely identified as salt moulds on archaeological sites except on production sites. This pottery is also excellent evidence for the development of specialised salt extraction throughout Europe since the late prehistoric period.

An Early Neolithic Bone and Antler Industry of Rakushechny Yar on the Lower Don: Technological Strategies and Functional Context

The Early Neolithic site of Rakushechny Yar on the Lower Don evidences successive peopling of the coastal zone in the 6th millennium BC. Analysis of faunal remains, toolkit, and limited technological contexts suggest seasonal orientation of the site shown at least at the early stages. We present the results of the analysis of the Early Neolithic bone tools from Rakushechny Yar layers 23–11 of excavation I, and assess their place in the context of bone industries of the contemporaneous archaeological cultures. The collection is dominated by points. Despite the variable morphology, their preforms and manufacturing techniques are rather standard. Apart from points, two spatula-like tools and two specimens with beveled edges, made from red-deer antler, were found. A limited typological and functional set reveals a peculiar subsistence activity. The traceological analysis has highlighted a stable series of tools for working skins and processing coarse vegetable materials (possibly for basket weaving). Spatula-shaped tools were likely destined for processing mineral materials such as ceramics. Certain typological and technological parallels are found in the Northern Caspian and the Lower Volga regions, but especially in the Southern Caucasian Neolithic (Aratashen-Shulaveri-Shomutepe) traditions possibly originating from those of the Levant and Zagros.

ПАМЯТНИК АРХЕОЛОГИИ «КОКШАРОВСКИЙ ХОЛМ — ЮРЬИНСКОЕ ПОСЕЛЕНИЕ»: НЕКОТОРЫЕ АСПЕКТЫ СОЦИОКУЛЬТУРНОЙ ИНТЕРПРЕТАЦИИ

Fixation in the cultural layer of the archaeological site of all ceramic types of the Trans-Ural region: early Neolithic (the last third of the 7th — the turn of the 6th–5th millennium BC) the Koshkino and the Koksharovsko-Yur’inskaya (Kozlovo) cultures, Late Neolithic (the turn of the 6th–5th millennium BC — the middle of the 5th millennium BC) of the Poludenskaya and the Basyanovskaya (local variant of the Boborykino) cultures, allows setting the tasks of the relationship of these complexes from the point of view of solving not only the “classical” problems of archaeology: typology, stratigraphy, absolute and relative chronology, etc. but also some socio-cultural interpretations. On the materials of such a specific source as an archaeological one, the solution of such problems is available in the analysis of only some archaeological sites. The authors of the article state, firstly, the dual nature of the social organization of primitive collectives within the heterogeneous community that created this unique archaeological complex, especially manifested in the early Neolithic stage in the face of the Koshkino and the Koksharovsko-Yur’inskaya population groups, whose activities were sealed by both joint production and cult practices and, most likely, the commonality of family and marriage relations, which was based on the principle of exogamy. Secondly, the authors assume for the Koksharovsky Kholm sanctuary the status of a cult place not only of a local district, but as an interregional center of a significant sociocultural space. Thirdly, one can observe the preservation in the Late Neolithic time of the microlithic flint processing technique, which in the Basyanovo community could have performed not only a production, but also a cult function. Fourthly, at the origins of the functioning of the “Koksharovsky Kholm — Yur’inskoe Settlement” archeological site was, most likely, the Koshkino group of population.

Серебряный карась Carassius gibelio (Bloch, 1782) в Чарвакском водохранилище Узбекистана: морфологическая и молекулярно-генетическая характеристика

Morphological variability in response to environmental features is an important feature of alien species, increasing their adaptive capabilities and facilitating naturalization in new habitats. The prussian carp Carassius gibelio is currently very widespread in the world. Much of its current range is believed to be acquired as a result of human activity, with the prussian carp recognized as an invasive species capable of having a significant impact on recipient ecosystems. On the territory of Uzbekistan, prussian carp has been known in the lower reaches of the Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya since the 4th millennium BC, and was also recorded in the first half of the 20th century. However, its numbers were not large. In the 1960s, the Amur form of the prussian carp was introduced into the water bodies of Uzbekistan, as a result of a targeted introduction from the "Savvino" fish farm near Moscow and the accidental import of herbivorous fish with juveniles from the Russian Far East, after which its unauthorized resettlement began with planting material of cultivated cyprinids. In the 1970s, prussian carp found their way into the Charvak Reservoir. This is a mountain cold-water reservoir, formed on the Chirchik River (the right tributary of the Syrdarya River) and is located between the spurs of the Western Tien-Shan. With an area of only 37 km, it has a volume of about 2 km and a depth of more than 50 m. The reservoir is characterized by summer drawdown of the water level used for irrigation in the river valley Chirchik. This causes an almost complete absence of vegetation in the water area of the reservoir. Despite the atypical conditions, the prussian carp formed a self-sustaining population. There is none below the reservoir dam to the middle reaches of the Chirchik River. Indicators of counting characteristics of prussian carp in reservoir are D III-IV 17-19; A II 5-6; 26-30 (average 29) scales in the lateral line; on the first gill arch, 40-53 (on average 48) gill rakers and generally correspond to the characteristics in this climatic zone. Indices of plastic characteristics, both in traditional morphological analysis (see Table 1) and in the analysis of morphometric distances according to the “truss protocol” assessment method (see Table 2), do not have pronounced differences from the indicators of prussian carp living in a lowland reservoir Tudakul and in the fish ponds of the fish hatchery of the Research Institute of Fisheries of Uzbekistan. Analysis of the nucleotide sequences of the cyt b gene of prussian carp from the Charvak reservoir showed their similarity with samples from the upper reaches of the Yangtze river, China (see Table 3), which proves Far Eastern origin of prussian carp ih the Charvak reservoir. It is likely that it was the prussian carp, brought from the Far East, that ensured the growth in the number of the species in Uzbekistan. The question of the breadth of distribution of the Amur form of prussian carp in the region and the preservation of its native form currently remains open and requires further research using molecular genetic methods. The article contains 2 Figures, 3 Tables and 30 References. The authors are grateful to the directorate of the Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan for creating conditions for the implementation of the planned scope of work. The Authors declare no conflict of interest.

A history of olive and grape cultivation in Southwest Asia using charcoal and seed remains.

Evaluating archaeobotanical data from over 3.9 million seeds and 124,300 charcoal fragments across 330 archaeological site phases in Southwest Asia, we reconstruct the history of olive and grape cultivation spanning a period of 6,000 years. Combining charcoal and seed data enables investigation into both the production and consumption of olive and grape. The earliest indication for olive and grape cultivation appears in the southern Levant around ca. 5000 BC and 4th millennium BC respectively, although cultivation may have been practiced prior to these dates. Olive and grape cultivation in Southwest Asia was regionally concentrated within the Levant until 600 BC, although there were periodic pushes to the East. Several indications for climate influencing the history of olive and grape cultivation were found, as well as a correlation between periods of high population density and high proportions of olive and grape remains in archaeological sites. While temporal uncertainty prevents a detailed understanding of the causal mechanisms behind these correlations, we suggest that long distance trade in olives, grapes and their associated products was integral to the economic, social, and demographic trajectories of the region.

Bronze age paleosols in the steppe area of the southern Cis-Urals in solving the problems of paleopedology and archaeology (a case-study of the Tashla IV site in the Orenburg region)

The aim of the study. To study the Bronze Age paleosols (Yamnaya and Srubnaya cultures), perform paleoclimatic reconstructions and comparison with previously studied synchronous paleosols in the Cis-Urals steppe. Location and time of the study. The studied site is located in the Orenburg region in the steppe area of the Southern Cis-Urals. In July 2019 and 2021 together with researchers from the archaeological laboratory of the Orenburg Pedagogical University, rescue excavations were carried out at the Tashla IV kurgan cemetery, located near the Tashla village. Kurgans 1 (Yamnaya culture) and 2 (Srubnaya culture) were studied. Methods. A comprehensive morphogenetic analysis of the soils buried beneath the kurgans and surface soils of the studied site was carried out; the soils were described in detail and classified in the field. Soil samples were analyzed for particle size distribution, loss of ignition, pH of the water extraction, content of organic and carbonate carbon, exchangeable bases and magnetic susceptibility. To carry out the paleoclimatic reconstructions, the chronosequence and comparative geographic methods were used. Results. It was established that the studied soils were buried under the kurgans at the beginning of the development of both cultures, when the stages of climatic aridization were close to their ending or ended in the first half of the 4th millennium BC (Yamnaya culture) and at the turn of the 3rd and 2nd millennia BC (Srubnaya culture). The climatic aridization during the Early stage of the Srubnaya culture was more significant than in the Early (Repinsky) stage of the Yamnaya culture, and this conclusion was made for the first time for the studied region. Conclusions. The studied soils properties could be grouped according to the characteristic times of their response to changes in external conditions: magnetic susceptibility, associated with microbiological activity, refers to rapidly changing properties, i.e. in the first decades, whereas changes in other studied properties require from several decades to hundreds of years. Comparison of the Srubnaya paleosol buried under kurgan 2 in the studied site with other soils of the same culture in the region made it possible to place it more accurately on the time scale, attributing to the very beginning of the 18th century BC, and additionally to characterize in detail the climate change within the time span of the Srubnaya culture of the Cis-Urals steppe.

Early Neolithic red-painted pottery from the Prandocin site, southern Poland. Indirect transfer in a technological context

The paper presents the results of specialized research on a small collection of artefacts of the Linear Pottery Culture in southern Poland. Among the 27 pottery fragments discovered at the Prandocin Site 1, a few painted fragments were identified. Such kind of painting style directly relates to the Želiezovce group of this culture in western Slovakia. Painted vessels are rarely found in the context of the Linear Pottery Culture in Lesser Poland (Małopolska), which is why special attention was given to raw material and technological studies of the ceramics. The study aimed to answer the question of whether the painted vessel was produced locally or if it representsevidence of direct migration of people, objects, or ideas from the areas of present-day western Slovakia at the turn of the 6th and 5th millennium BC.