Fourth Century Research Articles

원삼국~백제 한성기 중부 동ㆍ북부지역 적석분구묘의 재인식

This study aims to clearly understand the grave ceremonies of the Stone Mound Tomb in the central eastern and northern regions distributed along the Imjin and Han Rivers. The goal is to determine their structural forms, trace their lineage, and review the construction period to examine and thus re-establish the characteristics of the Stone Mound Tomb in the central eastern and northern regions. For this purpose, it was inappropriate to utilize the tomb classification system based on the traditional Goguryeo Stone Mound Tomb’s concepts of a grave and burial, which are related to the existence of a stairway. This is because these concepts do not properly capture the structural characteristics of the Stone Mound Tomb in the central eastern and northern regions. Hence, the Stone Mound Tomb was categorized into an “oval shape” and “quadrangle construction” as it was in contrast with the “rectangular type of construction” observed in Seokchon-dong, Seoul. The lineage of the tombs is not related to Goguryeo or Baekje, nor does it belong to a specific tribe called Yegye. The oval twisted-coffin type tomb representing the original tomb and burial ceremony were generated locally. Further, the rectangular burial Stone Mound Tomb type was examined as a complex type of tomb that illustrates all the elements of the square type Stone Mound Tomb in the central Baekje region and the oval tomb type in the central eastern and northern regions. Moreover, the elliptical frame type seems to have appeared in the first half of the third century and disappeared around the late fourth century. On the other hand, the rectangular type of tomb was constructed temporarily from the middle of the fourth century to the beginning of the fifth century, following the oval-shaped concentric-walled tomb. It is expected that these characteristics and dates of the Stone Mound Tomb in the central eastern and northern regions will provide new perspectives on the nature of the ancient political body in the central region and the growth process of Baekje in the future.

『上海博物館藏戰國楚竹書』「性情論」에 나타난 유가 초기의 性情 개념 연구

The excavated text 「XingQingLun」(性情論) which is written on the Bamboo Poles that Shanghai Museum(上海博物館) has possessed in is known to be established from between the late fourth century BC to 221 BC. This period corresponds to the time from Mencius to Hsun tzu. So, this text has a lot of information around Mencius’ thought. Under these assumptions, this paper researched the concepts of Xing(性) and Qing(情) in 「XingQingLun」(性情論). The first chapter researches the meaning of Tian(天)·Ming(命)·Xing(性) which used in 「XingQingLun」(性情論). Especially, in the matters of Xing, it is succession to the human nature theory of Mencius basically. But sometimes, it said that there are some differences of Xing between cattle, geese, and human. This mention is showing that the discussion about human nature started to expand and deepen. The second chapter researches the meaning of Qing. Qing has meant ‘actual state as it is’ originally. But Qing meant ‘the emotions(or the feelings)’ in 「XingQingLun」(性情論). It means that the ‘the emotions(or the feelings)’ are ‘actual state as it is’ in the context of this textbook. 「XingQingLun」(性情論) regards the emotions as important, and the traditional moral values are argued based upon the relation with the emotions. The third chapter researches what the emotions have significance. Especially, according to 「XingQingLun」(性情論), the feeling of happiness(悅) is a powerful motivation to cause a person's behavior and it is very close relationship with internal value De(德). Through these researches, this paper shows that the discussions about Xing(性) and Qing(情) in 「XingQingLun」(性情論) is more advanced thought than Mencius’ theory.

Narrowing provenance for ancient Greek silver coins using Ag isotopes and Sb contents of potential ores

Variations of 109Ag/107Ag in silver coins and ores are particularly useful in assessing the provenance of silver bullion. Silver isotope variability results from the temperature-dependent thermodynamic fractionation of Ag isotopes among the solutions and minerals participating in ore formation. They differ from lead isotopic variations which result from the decay of uranium and thorium and reflect the geochemical properties and the tectonic age of the possible ore sources. A remarkable property of Ag isotopes is the very narrow range of isotopic variations in silver bullion used for coinage (±1×10−4) with respect to the range of ores (±1×10−3). To test the practical usefulness of the technique, we analyzed the Ag isotopic abundances of 29 ore samples from ancient mining districts in the Aegean with major and minor Ag-bearing mineralizations, and of 34 ancient Greek coins minted from the sixth to late fourth centuries BC. We distinguished two groups among the coins: a dominant population (93% of the samples) with 109Ag/107Ag consistent with literature data (ε109Ag = −1 to +1) and an isotopically lighter population (ε109Ag = −2 to −1) which we show originated from Ag-bearing mineralizations in Lavrion (Attica). We further found that sulfur (also analyzed in this study) and silver isotope compositions in Aegean ores do not correlate, a finding that we confirmed on a selection of Iberian galena samples. This shows that the genetic ore type (whether hypo, meso, or epithermal) and silver productivity are not related. Finally, we undertook chemical analysis of the Aegean ore samples and confirmed that Ag-rich ores are also Sb-rich in both Greece and Iberia.A remarkable outcome of the present Ag isotope studies of galena ores from Iberia and Greece is that silver isotope compositions can exclude, with a high degree of reliability, the majority of mines identified by lead isotope analysis as sources from which coinage silver could plausibly have been extracted and thus significantly narrow down the actual source(s). Silver isotope data on galena ores are thus a useful tool for deciding which Pb isotope data included in ore databases should be included in provenance assessment studies. Contrary to some earlier assessments, subtle silver isotope variations can occasionally help determine ore provenance within a single mining district such as Lavrion.

The Material Fall of Roman Britain, 300–525 CE, by Robin Fleming

An arresting observation introduces Robin Fleming’s fascinating study of the ending of Roman Britain: ‘No other period in Britain’s prehistory or history witnessed the loss of so many classes of once-common objects, and these disappearances triggered fundamental changes in the structures of everyday life’ (p. 6). Of course, the visible material and social differences between Roman and post-Roman Britain have attracted a lot of previous attention. What marks out this original study is its focus, not on the causes of the ending of Roman Britain, or why quotidian objects disappeared, but on how they were used and what implications the disappearances had. Indeed, the model for how Roman Britain worked, and why it ended, may be familiar. In line with influential structural analyses, the Roman tax state is seen as the key to economic, social and material complexity, and its unravelling. Chapter One—‘The World the Annona Made’—presents a stylish, up-to-date overview of how the tax system produced that complexity, developed directly from the evidence, and a summary of the idea of ‘systems collapse’ in the fourth and fifth centuries. What Robin Fleming does is take up where this model leaves off, identifying how the objects that disappeared were bound up with social relationships and practices, and confronting the challenges their disappearances posed.

The Modern Methods and Approaches of Prosopography (A Researcher’s Workshop)

Referring to the reconstruction of the biography of Aelius Donatus, a Roman grammarian of the fourth century and the author of the grammatical treatise Ars Grammatica, this paper demonstrates the methods and techniques of prosopographic research. The author explains what methods to choose for a specific case and how they can work in relation to the reconstruction of Aelius Donatus’ biography. Also, the author demonstrates how with the help of such methods, a general approach and methodology, historical information can be selected, compared, and systematised; how, based on the analysis of vast prosopographic material, one can draw conclusions regarding the lifetime, activity, and occupation of a person, with no exact information preserved about their life. The author examines the importance of prosopography as a scholarly approach to the study of history, namely, social history, and the discussion about what prosopography is. The research employs and studies methods of exclusion and selection of sources, information search using electronic text databases, methods of comparative and textual analysis, interpretation of the text and relevant contexts, as well as their comparison, selection, and coordination of the information received, etc.

The Byzantine Embassy to Himyar (c. 356 AD) and the introduction of Christianity in South Arabia

Most modern researchers point out that a clear pattern of monotheistic religion began to appear in South Arabia since the middle of the fourth century. While these researchers count on the overwhelming influence of Judaism, they marginalize any influence of Christianity despite the presence of references in literary sources confirming the coincidence of this pattern with the first missionary embassy sent by the largest Christian empire at the time, the Byzantine Empire, to the kingdom of Himyar (c. 356 AD). These researchers are based on the absence of any explicit reference to Christianity in the epigraphic evidence. Hence, this research aims to re-approach this issue through the only source account of this mission, which was recorded by the ecclesiastical historian Philostorgius, and linking it to evidence from other literary sources, whether Byzantine or Eastern Christianity, which may support it.

Review: The Rise of Coptic: Egyptian versus Greek in Late Antiquity, by Jean-Luc Fournet

Review: <i>The Rise of Coptic: Egyptian versus Greek in Late Antiquity</i>, by Jean-Luc Fournet

Review: Singer of the Word of God: Ephrem the Syrian and His Significance in Late Antiquity, by Sebastian P. Brock

Review: <i>Singer of the Word of God: Ephrem the Syrian and His Significance in Late Antiquity</i>, by Sebastian P. Brock

The Date of Codex Sinaiticus

Abstract Codex Sinaiticus is generally described as one of ‘the great fourth century majuscule Bibles’, and its construction is often assigned to a more precise date in the middle of the fourth century. This essay surveys the evidence for the date of production of the codex and concludes that it could have been produced at any point from the early fourth century to the early fifth century. This time span may seem uncomfortably wide, but this particular range of dates makes Codex Sinaiticus an ideal candidate for AMS radiocarbon analysis. The shape of the radiocarbon calibration curve during this period means that a well-executed radiocarbon analysis of the codex should have the potential to shed further light on the date the codex was produced.

Female’s in Panniru Thirumuraigal

Out of 63 Nayanmars 3 Females are Placed. Among them Karaikal Ammaiyar, Mangaiyarkarasiyar, Isaignaniyar. The main reason for the development of devotional literature is karaikal Ammaiyar. She is precocions. To give equal rights to women to be the leader (Thalaivi) mother (Natraai) Friend (Thozhi) nurse (Sevili) doing the sangam period. Goddess karaikal Ammaiyar, who lived, in the fourth and fifth centuries AD, worshiped Lord Shiva in a devotional manner. One of the sitrilakkiyam is sung by the wonderful Thiruvanthadi. Mangaiyarkarasi’s devotional practice changed her husband from koon pandian to Ninraseer Nedumaran. It is stated in the study that women were not given equal rights in the Bakti literary period, although it was established that men are equal to women in devotion.

Confitendum et proficiendum: Augustine on the Rule of Faith and the Christian Life

The rule of faith obtained an increasingly flexible usage in the fourth and fifth centuries. In Augustine's various writings on the creed, we can see how he envisioned Christian engagement with the rule as extending beyond baptismal education to involve an ongoing and dynamic process of Christian transformation, particularly as it pertained to the heart. In catechetical sermons on the creed, the focus is on memorizing the creed by heart. In De agone Christiano, the heart is the site of battle with demonic forces. In De fide et symbolo, Augustine emphasizes purity of heart. In the Enchiridion, Augustine teaches the creed for wisdom and piety in the heart. For the ordinary Christian, the rule of faith serves as a means of progressive growth in the Christian life. Only in the beatific vision, when faith turns to sight and God himself becomes the Christian's vision, can the creed be laid to rest.

Schulübungen oder Kalenderblätter? Zur Interpretation einer Gruppe spätantiker Kulthymnen in der Appendix Claudianea

Abstract Until now, the short cult hymns to Liber, Mars and Juno in the Appendix Claudianea have mostly been seen as rhetorical school exercises. Yet a philological-historical analysis shows that they could be remains of occasional poetry from everyday life. The hymns are structured according to the Roman festival calendar and, on the basis of language and content, should probably be dated to the final phase of public non-Christian cult practice in the fourth century. The anonymous poet was familiar with classical Greek and Latin poetry, but reveals weaknesses in Latin prosody and metre. It can therefore be supposed that he should be identified as one of the many Graeco-Egyptian ‘wandering poets’, but probably not as Claudian himself.

Constance M. Furey, et al., eds. Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. Vol. 18: Mass–Midnight

Constance M. Furey, et al., eds. <i>Encyclopedia of the Bible and Its Reception. Vol. 18: Mass–Midnight</i>

A Chip Shop in Poznań: My Unlikely Year in Poland

A Chip Shop in Poznań: My Unlikely Year in Poland

Hellenistic Landscapes and Seleucid Control in Mesopotamia: The View from the Erbil Plain in Northern Iraq

In this article we discuss the archaeological landscapes of the Erbil plain during the Hellenistic period (late fourth century BCE–mid second century BCE) based on the data collected during the Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey (EPAS) between 2012 and 2019. We use a landscape archaeology approach to trace patterns of habitation, migration, land exploitation, and water management from the Iron Age to the early first millennium CE. Over the course of the first millennium BCE, the Erbil plain was transformed from an urbanized core region to a rural area of the vast Seleucid world through a moment of depopulation in the post-Assyrian period. These transformation processes continued after the end of the Hellenistic period, but with a different pattern. Urbanization resumed, peaking during the Parthian (Arsacid) era, when the region was part of the kingdom of Adiabene. Ultimately, our analysis shows how the planned landscape of Assyria was transformed in the centuries that followed the collapse of the empire and how the proximity of political power was the critical variable in the settlement patterns of this part of northern Mesopotamia under the empires of the first millennium BCE.1

Модернизирующее церковное правотворчество св. императора Юстиниана на примере регулирования провинциальных соборов

The Church Councils of the ante-Nicene period had neither a clear periodicity nor a strictly defined competence. Their competence was very broad, almost limitless: questions of faith, discipline, the calendar, the practice of the Sacraments. These local councils of the ante-Nicene era were replaced, from the fourth century, by provincial councils.In 325 a number of rules for provincial councils were approved in Nicaea: they had to be convened twice a year, consist of bishops of one particular province, take place in a provincial civil centre (metropolis) and their competence was limited to second-instance judicial proceedings. Further church legislation did not extend this competence, although in fact the councils dealt not only with judicial, but also with doctrinal problems. The biannual councils as prescribed by Nicaea canons becomes burdensome because of the large size of some provinces and some other reasons. The novels of Justinian I for the first time clearly defined the competence of a "provincial" council. The emperor included not only judicial, but also canonical and doctrinal topics in the competence of the provincial councils, while establishing a regularity of holding them "once a year". The modernizing legislative activity of St. Emperor Justinian proved useful and was recognized by the church hierarchy.

자기 배려의 덕과 그리스도교 혼인의 계보학

This article is to examine whether the Christian marriage can be a locus of ‘spiritual practice’ and virtue of ‘self-care’ development. The goal of this study is to trace the genealogical history of the Magisterial teachings on marriage, which has revealed how the value of ‘spiritual practice’ and the technology of ‘self-care’ have been developed, for the sake of one’s personal ‘salvation’. To do this, this study explores how Michel Foucault’s study of self-care can help to discuss the Magisterial teachings on marriage. Although Foucault has never dealt with the Christian marital doctrine, this study tries to discuss it genealogically, by using Foucault’s insights which analyze the fourth-century Christian Fathers’ theological statements of marriage. By using Foucault’s The History of Sexuality, Vol.4: the Confessions of the Flesh, as an analyzing lens, this study explores the subject of self-perception and of self-cultivation, which is the subject that Christian conjugal life has embraced for a long time. By comparing the Church Fathers’ theological statements about the marriage, in particular analyzing the sermons and writings of Chrysostomus and Augustinus in the fourth century, this study traces the history of using marriage as an art of renunciation for the sake of one’s salvation. This study finds these historical traces of marital art in the Documents of the Second Vatican Council, especially in the Gaudium et spes once again. Finally, this finds the same traces in Pope Francisco’s Amoris Laetitia in which marriage has been confirmed as a locus of the spiritual practice and the virtue development for the sake of cultivating self-reflection and personal fulfillment.

Puberty in pre‐Roman times: A bioarchaeological study of Etruscan‐Samnite adolescents from Pontecagnano (southern Italy)

AbstractObjectivesPuberty is a crucial part of life, representing the biological transition from childhood to adulthood. With the aim of expanding current knowledge of pubertal development and the life course in past populations, this study provides the first investigation of puberty in pre‐Roman Italy.Materials and methodsNine skeletal and dental puberty indicators were assessed in a sample of 84 Etruscan and Samnite individuals (8.0–23.9 years) from Pontecagnano (southern Italy, seventh–fourth centuries BC) to garner insights into the timing and duration of different pubertal stages.ResultsAdolescents from Pontecagnano entered puberty at 10–12 years and completed pubertal development at approximately 20–21 years. Menarche occurred between 14 and 17 years. Remarkable variability in pubertal timing and an overall prolonged pubertal tempo were observed. Unexpectedly, females completed puberty at the same age as males.DiscussionThe onset and completion of puberty in Pontecagnano are mostly in line with pubertal trends emerging from other bioarchaeological studies and historical sources. The considerable inter‐individual variability in pubertal timing seen at the site probably reflects its great sociocultural heterogeneity, whilst the prolonged pubertal tempo could represent an adaptive mechanism in response to environmental disruptors. These may have included endemic diseases characteristic of Pontecagnano's marshy environment and pollutants produced by the Etruscan and Samnite metallurgical industries. Moreover, the role of catch‐up growth in favouring better pregnancy outcomes could explain why female puberty appears particularly stretched. The importance of exploring pubertal development in past societies without culturally biased assumptions is emphasised.

A Brief History of Liberal Education in Ancient and Medieval Europe－Focusing on the Formation and Evolution of Liberal Arts

This paper examined the history of liberal education in ancient and medieval Europe, focusing on the formation and evolution of liberal arts using materials concerning the history of education, history of university, history of philosophy, and history of science. The elementary form of liberal education emerged at Greece in the fourth century BC. The philosophers’ tradition and the orators’ tradition made two approaches to liberal education. Greek scholarship was accepted in the form of encyclopedic publications in the Roman era, and &lt;i&gt;Disciplinarium libri novem&lt;/i&gt;, the first work which contained the idea of liberal arts, was written in the first century BC. In the early medieval ages, so called dark ages, secular scholarship maintained its existence through the medium of liberal arts. In the fifth century, liberal arts became actualized into the seven liberal arts through &lt;i&gt;De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii&lt;/i&gt;. Since the sixth century, the seven liberal arts were divided into trivium and quadrivium. In the Renaissance of the twelfth century, ancient writings were extensively translated including Aristotelian works, and the attempt to relate Greek philosophies and the seven liberal arts was tried. Circa 1250, some universities were set up in the major cities of Europe, and medieval universities were mostly organized with the faculties of arts, theology, law, and medicine. Since the late thirteenth century, the arts faculty extended the scope of liberal arts by adding three philosophies to the existing seven liberal arts: natural philosophy, metaphysics and ethics. Based on the above examination, this paper showed that the scope of liberal arts was not fixed but continuously changed, and that humanities and science were not separated in ancient and medieval Europe.

First Direct Evidence of Agrarian Practices in the Alava Plateau (Northern Iberia) During the Middle Ages Through Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Analyses of Charred Seeds

ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope analyses on 50 charred seed samples from the medieval villages of Zornoztegi and Aistra, dated to between fourth and fourteenth centuries CE. The assemblage was mainly formed by Triticum aestivum/durum, although some Hordeum vulgare, Avena and Vicia ervilia samples were also included. Despite the social and political differences between the sites, no big contrasts were found between them. According to Δ13C values, watering was predominantly low to moderate. There were statistically significant differences in the distribution of carbon stable isotope ratios of wheats between Zornoztegi and Aistra, as moderately and well watered grains were more common in the former. Barley samples were consistently in the range of poorly watered grains, while bitter vetch were extremely variable. Nitrogen isotope ratios were very homogeneous across taxa and between sites, and they pointed at the predominance of low manuring regimes, with only a few samples within the range of medium manured crops. No significant chronological changes in any of the indicators were found throughout the Middle Ages.