Foundational Reading Skills Research Articles

Effectiveness of an Occupational Therapy Reading Program for Low Socioeconomic First and Second Graders in an Urban Elementary School: A Pilot Randomized Controlled Study

ABSTRACT Objective We assessed the effectiveness of an occupational therapy reading program that targeted foundational reading skills and reading participation for first and second graders in an underserved urban elementary school. Method: Eleven intervention group participants received the 10-week reading program based on the incorporation of self-generated learning strategies and sensorimotor experiences. Both intervention group and 10 control group participants received traditional classroom reading instruction based on pencil and paper exercises. Results: Statistically significant differences with large effect sizes were found between intervention and control group post-intervention scores on the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (Z = -3.553, p < .000, d = 1.826) and Dolch Sight Word List scales (Z = -3.052, p < .002, d = 1.256). No statistically significant differences were found at posttest between intervention and control group scores on the Benchmark Assessment System and Test of Word Reading Efficiency. Questionnaire data demonstrated that intervention group participants displayed greater reading enjoyment, increased home reading participation, improved home literacy routines, and greater agency as readers, compared to the control group. Conclusion: Preliminary evidence was demonstrated for the effectiveness of the reading program in the study sample with regard to foundational reading skills and participation.

Assessing Foundational Reading Skills in Kindergarten: A Curriculum-Based Measurement in Spanish

Early identification of learning difficulties is a critical component of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. In kindergarten, the screening of foundational reading skills can provide a data-based guideline for identifying students requiring a more intensive response-based intervention before starting elementary school. This study examines the classification accuracy and best predictors of a set of Spanish curriculum-based measures administered during kindergarten. The study’s sample included 189 students tested in the fall, winter, and spring. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted. The composite score of the curriculum-based measurement (CBM) revealed area under the ROC curve (AUC) values of 0.83, 0.97, and 0.94 in the fall, winter, and spring, respectively. Phonemic awareness and letter-sound knowledge were the only isolated measures that demonstrated excellent AUC values throughout kindergarten. Logistic regression models showed that, when entered simultaneously, all measures were significant predictors of reading risk at some moment of the school year.

The Effects of Ability Grouping on Kindergarten Students’ ReadingAchievement

The number of elementary students in the United States reading at a proficient level is significantly low. Elementary schools in the United States need to increase the number of students reading at the proficient level in order to move towards success in other subject areas, raise graduation rates, increase economic opportunities, and boost the likelihood of favorable long term health. Foundational reading skills, beginning in kindergarten, are an early predictor of future reading proficiency. Homogeneous ability grouping is one instructional strategy that can help students master foundational reading skills. Ability grouping is an educational practice that can be used with all students. Few studies exist in the research involving American kindergarten students' participation in homogeneous ability groups. This research seeks to fill that gap by testing the effects of ability grouping on kindergarten students' reading achievement. This study utilized an AB research design over the course of 12 weeks in a kindergarten classroom. In this study, all 24 students in the kindergarten class completed the FAST one-minute letter sound fluency assessment, Form 1, to establish a baseline score. The students received six weeks of foundational skills instruction during the baseline phase. During the intervention phase, the students spent six weeks engaged in homogeneous ability groups. It was hypothesized that kindergarten students who participated in an ability-grouped intervention in the area of reading would make greater gains in letter sound fluency than when not participating in a homogeneous ability-grouped intervention. A dependent samples t-test and subsequent analysis of the results did not support this hypothesis.

The Relationship Between Study Quality and the Effects of Supplemental Reading Interventions: A Meta-Analysis.

Empirical studies investigating supplemental reading interventions for students with or at-risk for reading disabilities in the early elementary grades have demonstrated a range of effect sizes. Identifying the findings from high quality research can provide greater certainty of findings related to the effectiveness of supplemental reading interventions. This meta-analysis investigated how four variables of study quality (study design, statistical treatment, Type I error, and fidelity of implementation) were related to effect sizes from standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language/comprehension. The results from 88 studies indicated that year of publication was a significant predictor of effect sizes for both standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language/comprehension, with more recent studies demonstrating smaller effect sizes. Results also demonstrated that with the exception of research design predicting effect sizes on foundational reading skills measures, study quality was not related to the effects of supplemental reading interventions. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

An Application of Multidimensional Vertical Scaling

ABSTRACTVertical scales are widely used in educational assessment as a basis for considering grade-to-grade changes in student performance. Typically, the underlying construct is assumed to be essentially unidimensional; however, if there is a change in the measured construct across grades, this assumption may be untenable. Developing a multidimensional vertical scale in these instances provides a potential solution to this problem. This paper uses empirical data from four parallel forms of a test designed to measure six foundational reading skills–administered to students in grades 6–9–to address issues in the development of a multidimensional vertical scale. The defensibility of the multidimensional structure, value-added subscores, and the stability of the scale are considered. Student growth based on unidimensional versus multidimensional estimates of ability is also presented with particular attention to implications associated with potential construct shift.

Do Working Memory Deficits Underlie Reading Problems in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?

Reading problems are common in children with ADHD and show strong covariation with these children's underdeveloped working memory abilities. In contrast, working memory training does not appear to improve reading performance for children with ADHD or neurotypical children. The current study bridges the gap between these conflicting findings, and combines dual-task methodology with Bayesian modeling to examine the role of working memory for explaining ADHD-related reading problems. Children ages 8-13 (M = 10.50, SD = 1.59) with and without ADHD (N = 78; 29 girls; 63% Caucasian/Non-Hispanic) completed a counterbalanced series of reading tasks that systematically manipulated concurrent working memory demands. Adding working memory demands produced disproportionate decrements in reading comprehension for children with ADHD (d = -0.67) relative to Non-ADHD children (d = -0.18); comprehension was significantly reduced in both groups when working memory demands were increased. These effects were robust to controls for foundational reading skills (decoding, sight word vocabulary) and comorbid reading disability. Concurrent working memory demands did not slow reading speed for either group. The ADHD group showed lower comprehension (d = 1.02) and speed (d = 0.69) even before adding working memory demands beyond those inherently required for reading. Exploratory conditional effects analyses indicated that underdeveloped working memory overlapped with 41% (comprehension) and 85% (speed) of these between-group differences. Reading problems in ADHD appear attributable, at least in part, to their underdeveloped working memory abilities. Combined with prior cross-sectional and longitudinal findings, the current experimental evidence positions working memory as a potential causal mechanism that is necessary but not sufficient for effectively understanding written language.

A path analytic model linking foundational skills to Grade 3 state reading achievement

ABSTRACTConsiderable evidence supports that close to two thirds of all fourth-grade students read at less than adequate levels on reading achievement tests and that the problem has persisted for decades. This study of 1,064 third-grade students at risk for reading failure uses path analytic techniques to measure a hypothesized model linking developmental spelling, sight- and pseudo-word reading, and reading fluency to achievement on an end-of-year state reading test. While all hypothesized paths were found to be significant, paths not hypothesized were also significant. These paths included direct effects for spelling development on fluency and reading achievement, as well as the direct effect of sight-word reading on state reading achievement. In total, the model predicted 41.9% of the variance in state reading achievement and found that students proficient at foundational reading skills were 7 times more likely to be proficient on the state reading achievement assessment.

Great Expectations: A Framework for Assessing and Understanding Key Factors Affecting Student Learning of Foundational Reading Skills.

This article addresses the evolution of the underlying theories of change in global education reform efforts between 1990 and 2015, informed by the shift in focus from access to quality and learning. We review recent data regarding how different types of donor interventions (i.e., structural or pedagogical) have contributed to improved reading outcomes and compare effect sizes over a series of intervention studies conducted from 2003 to 2015. Against this background, we present a framework for understanding how the intensity, frequency, and fidelity of the interventions as well as the enabling environments of reform affect the magnitude and rates at which reading and learning outcomes can be expected to improve. In this, we present the context for the articles that follow, identifying the program design characteristics and types of interventions that increase the likelihood of successful expansion of the interventions commonly referred to as "scaling-up," the ability to sustain interventions, and the value (cost effectiveness) of reading programs in low- and middle-income countries.

Multilevel Analysis of Multiple-baseline Data Evaluating Precision Teaching as an Intervention for Improving Fluency in Foundational Reading Skills for at Risk Readers

ABSTRACTIn this article, multiple-baseline across participants designs were used to evaluate the impact of a precision teaching (PT) program, within a Tier 2 Response to Intervention framework, targeting fluency in foundational reading skills with at risk kindergarten readers. Thirteen multiple-baseline design experiments that included participation from 35 kindergarten students were included in the current analysis. By combining data from a series of multiple-baseline studies using a multilevel model, we analyzed outcomes to determine an estimated treatment effect. The results indicate that across participants and across studies, PT showed an average increase of 15 correct responses in foundational reading skills per minute. This immediate influence on rates of core reading skills was statistically significant. Moreover, the treatment had a significant positive effect on the time trend indicating that rates in foundational reading skills increased more across time during the treatment phase compared to the baseline phase. The study provides evidence that the obtained rates in foundational reading skills at the end of the intervention were retained after removing the intervention. From the outcomes of the multilevel model, PT can be considered as a promising Tier 2 intervention to increase reading fluency with individuals who are at risk of reading failure.

“It ain't hard no more!” Individualizing instruction for struggling readers

ABSTRACTDespite sound instructional practices to develop foundational reading skills with young learners, numerous learners continue to lag behind in literacy learning. Many do not view themselves as readers, lack motivation, and become disengaged with learning in general. This article shares a research-based instructional framework developed by one of the authors, Amanda Sparrow, who tutored a struggling reader. An attitudinal survey was included that revealed the tutee's interest in tractors and dump trucks. With this information, the tutee's interests and differentiated instruction to meet his unique learning needs were considered. Consequently, the tutee eagerly engaged in learning and, ultimately, developed his self-efficacy as a reader. The authors posit this instructional approach may inform mainstream teachers who continue to seek ways to improve the literacy success of all learners.

Early Oral Language Comprehension, Task Orientation, and Foundational Reading Skills as Predictors of Grade 3 Reading Comprehension

Early Oral Language Comprehension, Task Orientation, and Foundational Reading Skills as Predictors of Grade 3 Reading Comprehension

Home Literacy Environments and Foundational Literacy Skills for Struggling and Nonstruggling Readers in Rural Early Elementary Schools

Factors such as weak early literacy skills and living in poverty may put young students at risk for reading disabilities. While home literacy activities and access to literacy materials have been associated with positive reading outcomes for urban and suburban students, little is known about home literacy environments of rural early elementary school students living in poverty and their relationship to foundational reading skills for struggling and nonstruggling readers. This study examined how home literacy environments might relate to rural kindergarten and first grade students’ reading performance. Parents of 1,108 kindergarten and first grade students in the rural Southeast completed questionnaires on the frequency of home literacy activities and access to literacy materials. Multilevel model analyses revealed that home literacy activities and access to literacy materials were positively related to basic word reading skills, passage comprehension, and spelling. Implications for families and educators are discussed.

The Effects of Explicit Instruction on the Reading Performance of Adolescent English Language Learners With Intellectual Disabilities

This study sought to determine the effects of explicit phonics instruction and sight word instruction on the letter‐sound identification and word reading of 13‐ to 15‐year‐old English language learners in the eighth grade who were identified as having intellectual disabilities (ID). Using a randomized single‐subject design, four Hispanic students with mild ID who were native Spanish speakers and receiving free or reduced‐price lunch were assigned to receive either phonics or sight word instruction. Both treatments were taught explicitly to the pair of students in the condition and included scaffolding and multiple practice opportunities. Sessions took place every other day for 20 minutes over 8 weeks, totaling 400 minutes of intervention. All students demonstrated increased rates of improvement in identifying letter‐sounds and untaught words on the Basic Phonics Skills Test III. Although students in the sight word condition were not explicitly taught letter‐sound correspondences, they correctly identified the sounds of all 26 letters by posttest. All students progressed in their ability to read untaught words of increasing complexity. Results suggest that adolescents with mild cognitive impairments attending schools taught in a nonnative language can still profit from explicit instruction in foundational reading skills.

The effects of a volunteer mentoring programme on reading outcomes among eight- to nine-year-old children: A follow up randomized controlled trial

This article presents the findings of a randomized controlled trial evaluation of the effects of a revised version of the volunteer mentoring programme, Time to Read. Participating children received two 30-minute mentoring sessions per week from volunteer mentors who carried out paired reading activities with the children. The current trial involved 512 children aged eight to nine years from 50 primary schools. The programme was found to be effective in improving decoding skills (d=+.15), reading rate (d=+.22) and reading fluency (d=+.14) and there was some evidence of a positive effect in relation to the children’s aspirations for the future (d=+.11). However, no evidence was found of the programme having an effect on reading comprehension or reading confidence and enjoyment of reading. The article concludes by suggesting that mentoring programmes using non-specialist volunteers can be effective in improving foundational reading skills but would appear to be less effective in terms of improving higher-order skills such as comprehension. The article also suggests that such programmes are likely to be most effective if concentrating on core reading activities rather than attempting to address reading outcomes indirectly through improving children’s confidence or wider enjoyment of reading.

Computer-assisted instruction to prevent early reading difficulties in students at risk for dyslexia: Outcomes from two instructional approaches

The relative effectiveness of two computer-assisted instructional programs designed to provide instruction and practice in foundational reading skills was examined. First-grade students at risk for reading disabilities received approximately 80 h of small-group instruction in four 50-min sessions per week from October through May. Approximately half of the instruction was delivered by specially trained teachers to prepare students for their work on the computer, and half was delivered by the computer programs. At the end of first grade, there were no differences in student reading performance between students assigned to the different intervention conditions, but the combined-intervention students performed significantly better than control students who had been exposed to their school's normal reading program. Significant differences were obtained for phonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, reading accuracy, rapid automatic naming, and reading comprehension. A follow-up test at the end of second grade showed a similar pattern of differences, although only differences in phonemic awareness, phonemic decoding, and rapid naming remained statistically reliable.

The Effects of the Paraphrasing Strategy on the Reading Comprehension of Middle School Students at Risk for Failure in Reading

Reading is an important component of academic success and a skill required for many adult responsibilities. Many strategies exist that claim to increase reading comprehension. However, in contrast to foundational reading skills (e.g., vocabulary, fluency, decoding), there is relatively little research that has been done on reading comprehension strategies. This study investigated the use of self-regulated strategy development paired with the “RAP” paraphrasing strategy as a way to increase reading comprehension. Participants were three sixth-grade students from a midwestern state. Results indicate that use of the RAP paraphrasing strategy increased reading comprehension.

Accuracy of the DIBELS Oral Reading Fluency Measure for Predicting Third Grade Reading Comprehension Outcomes

We evaluated the validity of DIBELS ( Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills) ORF ( Oral Reading Fluency) for predicting performance on the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT-SSS) and Stanford Achievement Test (SAT-10) reading comprehension measures. The usefulness of previously established ORF risk-level cutoffs [Good, R.H., Simmons, D.C., and Kame’enui, E.J. (2001). The importance and decision-making utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills for third-grade high-stakes outcomes. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, 257–288.] for third grade students were evaluated on calibration ( n S1 = 16,539) and cross-validation ( n S2 = 16,908) samples representative of Florida's Reading First population. The strongest correlations were the third (February/March) administration of ORF with both FCAT-SSS and SAT-10 ( r S = .70–.71), when the three tests were administered concurrently. Recalibrated ORF risk-level cut scores derived from ROC (receiver-operating characteristic) curve analyses produced more accurate identification of true positives than previously established benchmarks. The recalibrated risk-level cut scores predict performance on the FCAT-SSS equally well for students from different socio-economic, language, and race/ethnicity categories.

Back to the Basics: Lake Tahoe, California /Nevada: Geography and Mathematics

Back to the Basics: Lake Tahoe, California/Nevada* continues the Wetland Education Through Maps and Aerial Photography (WETMAAP) Program of exercises on teaching foundational map reading and spatial differentiation skills. It is the third published exercise from the Back to the Basics series developed by the WETMAAP Program. The current exercise modified is from the Lake Tahoe Back to the Basics workshop offered during the annual National Council for Geographic Education meeting. The focus of this exercise is on geography and mathematics, a unification of skills for spatial analysis and measurement.

Back to the Basics: Birmingham, Alabama, Measurement and Scale

Back to the Basics: Birmingham, Alabama is the fourth in a series of workshops that focus on teaching foundational map reading and spatial differentiation skills. It is the second published exercise from the Back to the Basics series developed by the Wetland Education through Maps and Aerial Photography (WETMAAP) Program (see Journal of Geography 103, 5: 226-230). Like its predecessor, the current exercise is modified from the Birmingham Back to the Basics workshop offered during the annual National Council for Geographic Education meeting. The focus of this exercise is on scale and measurement, foundational skills for spatial thinking and analysis.

The Importance and Decision-Making Utility of a Continuum of Fluency-Based Indicators of Foundational Reading Skills for Third-Grade High-Stakes Outcomes

Educational accountability and its counterpart, high-stakes assessment, are at the forefront of the educational agenda in this era of standards-based reform. In this article, we examine assessment and accountability in the context of a prevention-oriented assessment and intervention system designed to assess early reading progress formatively. Specifically, we explore the utility of a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational early literacy skills to predict reading outcomes, to inform educational decisions, and to change reading outcomes for students at risk of reading difficulty. First, we address the accountability era, discuss the promise of prevention-oriented assessment, and outline a continuum of fluency-based indicators of foundational reading skills using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills and Curriculum-Based Measurement Oral Reading Fluency. Next, we describe a series of linked, short-term, longitudinal studies of 4 cohorts examining the utility and predictive validity of the measures from kindergarten through 3rd grade with the Oregon Statewide Assessment-Reading/Literature as a high-stakes reading outcome. Using direct measures of key foundational skills, predictive validities ranged from. 34 to. 82. The utility of the fluency-based benchmark goals was supported with the finding that 96% of children who met the 3rd-grade oral reading fluency benchmark goal met or exceeded expectations on the Oregon Statewide Assessment, a high-stakes outcome measure. We illustrate the utility of the measures for evaluating instruction, modifying the instructional system, and targeting children who need additional instructional support to achieve benchmark goals. Finally, we discuss the instructional and policy implications of our findings and their utility in an active educational accountability environment.