Fouling-release Properties Research Articles

Amphiphilic marine coating systems of self-stratified PDMS-PEG surfaces with an epoxy-polyurethane matrix

Marine coatings protect submerged surfaces from the negative effects of biofouling. In this work, we demonstrate a new method to prepare self-stratified, amphiphilic glycidyl-carbamate (GC)-based (epoxy urethane-based) coatings (AmpSiGC coatings) that have fouling-release properties making them suitable for marine use. The prepared coating systems are unique and durable in character as the bulk coating takes advantage of both epoxy and urethane functionalities while the surface is comprised of both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains, granting it an amphiphilic characteristic. The experimental approach aimed to evaluate several factors that influence coating performance, including molecular weight of poly (ethylene glycol) (PEG) and PDMS moieties, ratio of hydrophobic (PDMS) and hydrophilic (PEG) components in the system, and the effect of different curing agents. The results demonstrated that polymeric chains of 10,000 $${\overline{M} }_{n}$$ PDMS and 750 $${\overline{M} }_{n}$$ PEG at 10–15 wt.% each offer substantially improved or comparable fouling-release performance in comparison to commercial marine coatings. This paper reports on the facile synthesis and characterization of the GC resin and GC prepolymers using FTIR and epoxy titrations; surface characterization of the coatings using ATR-FTIR, XPS, and AFM; and fouling-release assessment of the surfaces using laboratory biological assays with the barnacle Amphibalanus amphitrite, the algae Ulva linza and Navicula incerta, and the bacteria Cellulophaga lytica. Several of the AmpSiGC coatings exhibited promising performance, which were better or comparable to the internal and commercial reference coatings. The performance of the systems was dependent on all of the factors considered in this study.

ПОЛУЧЕНИЕ И ПРИМЕНЕНИЕ ГИДРОФОБНЫХ ПОЛИУРЕТАНОВЫХ КРЕМНИЙСОДЕРЖАЩИХ ПОКРЫТИЙ. ЧАСТЬ 1: ОСНОВЫ ЯВЛЕНИЯ ГИДРОФОБНОСТИ (ОБЗОР)

Highly- and superhydrophobic characteristics of surfaces can dramatically increase protective properties of polymeric coatings and may add it new useful functions. For example, fabricating of hydrophobic coatings with self-cleaning, anti-icing, anti-fouling or fouling release properties, as well as producing filtrating systems, compounds that can selectively wets surfaces, coatings decreasing of liquid streams friction exists described in numerous research articles. Despite of an apparent simplicity of a water droplet behavior on the surface in theoretical basis of the wetting phenomena still exists unsolved questions, which prevent developing many new materials, including hydrophobic coatings. In the first part of review, the modern theoretical concepts, relating to the process of surface wetting are review. Advantages and limitations of existing models of liquid drop behavior on solid surface, hysteresis phenomena are discussed. Basic concepts concerning effect of morphology of surface layer on the wetting and value of contact angle and stability of liquid drop on solid surface are represented

Fabrication of anti‐fouling thin‐film composite reverse osmosis membrane via constructing heterogeneous wettability surface

AbstractAnti‐fouling properties are tightly related to the surface properties of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. In our study, fluorinated polyethyleneimine (FPEI) was synthesized by introducing perfluoroalkyl groups into a hydrophilic polyethyleneimine (PEI) matrix, and the heterogeneous wettability surface with hydrophilic and low‐surface‐energy properties was constructed by grafting FPEI on membrane surface via the carbodiimide‐induced method. Verified by the result analysis of SEM, AFM, and zeta potentials measurements, the fluorinated RO membrane surface presented denser, smoother, and reduced negative charge. The surface free energy of RO membrane surface after grafting FPEI decreased from 45.5 to 38.7 mJ/m2. By using bovine serum albumin (BSA), humic acid (HA), and dodecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (DTAB) as model foulants, the fluorinated RO membrane exhibits optimal fouling resistance and fouling release properties compared to pristine membrane and membrane modified by surface grafting hydrophilic PEI. Especially, the high recovery ratio (99%) and low total flux decline ratio (17.2%) were acquired during the filtration of BSA solution. These results manifested that the construction of a heterogeneous wettability surface can further improve the anti‐fouling properties of RO membranes compared to a pure hydrophilic surface, and the corresponding anti‐fouling mechanism was put forward.

Amphiphilic Zwitterionic Acrylate/Methacrylate Copolymers for Marine Fouling-Release Coatings.

Methacrylate and acrylate monomers are popular building blocks for antifouling (AF) and fouling-release (FR) coatings to counteract marine biofouling. They are used in various combinations and often combined into amphiphilic materials. This study investigated the FR properties of amphiphilic ethylene glycol dicyclopentenyl ether acrylate (DCPEA) and the corresponding methacrylate (DCPEMA) blended with 5 wt % zwitterionic carboxybetaine acrylate (CBA) and the corresponding methacrylate (CBMA). A series of (co)polymers with different acrylate/methacrylate compositions were synthesized and tested against the attachment of the diatom Navicula perminuta and in short-term dynamic field exposure experiments. The more hydrophobic methacrylate DCPEMA homopolymer outperformed its acrylate counterpart DCPEA. Incorporated zwitterionic functionality of both CBMA and CBA imparted ultralow fouling capability in the amphiphilic polymers toward diatom attachment, whereas in the real ocean environment, only the employment of CBMA reduced marine biofouling. Moreover, it was observed that CBA-containing coatings showed different surface morphologies and roughnesses compared to the CBMA analogues. Particularly, a high impact was found when acrylic CBA was mixed with methacrylic DCPEMA. While the wettability of the coatings was comparable, investigated methacrylates in general exhibited superior fouling resistance compared to the acrylates.

Critical Amphiphilic Concentration: Effect of the Extent of Amphiphilicity on Marine Fouling-Release Performance

Amphiphilic surfaces, containing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic domains, offer desirable performance for many applications such as marine coatings or anti-icing purposes. This work explores the effect of the concentration of amphiphilic moieties on converting a polyurethane (PU) system to a coating having fouling-release properties. A novel amphiphilic compound is synthesized and added at increasing amounts to a PU system, where the amount of the additive is the only variable in the study. The additive-modified surfaces are characterized by a variety of techniques including ATR-FTIR, XPS, contact angle measurements, and AFM. Surface characterizations indicate the presence of amphiphilic domains on the surface due to the introduction of the self-stratifying amphiphilic additive. The fouling-release properties of the surfaces are assessed with three biological assays using Ulva linza, Cellulophaga lytica, and Navicula Incerta as the test organisms. A change in the fouling-release performance is observed and plateaued once a certain amount of amphiphilicity is attained in the coating system, which we call the critical amphiphilic concentration (CAC).

Spray‐Painted Hydrogel Coating for Marine Antifouling

AbstractBiofouling is a longstanding problem for biomedical devices, food storage, and marine equipment. Traditional antifouling strategies involve the use of biocidal agents, low surface‐energy surface, and nanopatterned coatings. Recent studies show that hydrophilic surfaces are also promising for antifouling by directly reducing the adhesion of proteins and polysaccharides. However, it remains challenging to stably and conveniently coat nonadhesive hydrophilic polymers to various surfaces in high density. Especially, for marine antifouling, large‐area painting of hydrophilic polymer coatings is susceptible to low adhesion strength, inhomogeneous surface coverage, and short durability. Here, a paintable antifouling hydrogel coating is proposed to overcome these limitations. An epoxy midcoat layer is introduced to provide both strong noncovalent adhesion to various surfaces and covalent linkages to hydrogel layers. The 3D hydrogel layers provide homogenous, relatively low Young's modulus and dense surface coverage and therefore shows outstanding antifouling properties toward various proteins, polysaccharides, seaweeds, and oil. Moreover, this hydrogel coating degrades slowly in sea water and facilitates the release of fouling biomolecules and organisms. Considering the great antifouling and fouling release properties, convenient coating processes, and high adhesion strength, this novel paintable antifouling hydrogel coating is anticipated to be broadly applicable for marine antifouling and other relevant fields.

Synthesis and Characterization of Dendritic and Linear Glycol Methacrylates and Their Performance as Marine Antifouling Coatings.

Dendritic polyglycerol (PG) was covalently coupled to 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) by an anionically catalyzed ring-opening polymerization generating a dendritic PG-HEMA with four PG repetition units (PG4MA). Coatings of the methacrylate monomer were prepared by grafting-through and compared against commercially available hydrophilic monomers of HEMA, poly(ethylene) glycol methacrylate (PEGMA), and poly(propylene) glycol methacrylate (PPGMA). The obtained coatings were characterized by modern surface analytical techniques, including water contact angle goniometry (sessile and captive bubble), attenuated total internal reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and atomic force microscopy. The antifouling (AF) and fouling-release (FR) properties of the coatings were tested against the model organisms Cobetia marina and Navicula perminuta in laboratory-scale dynamic accumulation assays as well as in a dynamic short-term field exposure (DSFE) in the marine environment. In addition, the hydration of the coatings and their susceptibility toward silt uptake were evaluated, revealing a strong correlation between water uptake, silt incorporation, and field assay performance. While all glycol derivatives showed good resistance in laboratory settlement experiments, PPGMA turned out to be less susceptible to silt incorporation and outperformed PEGMA and PG4MA in the DSFE assay.

Polydimethylsiloxane Microdomains Formation at the Polythiourethane/Air Interface and Its Influence on Barnacle Release.

In this study, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)/polythiourethane (PTU) composite reinforced with tetrapodal shaped micro-nano ZnO particles (t-ZnO) was successfully produced by a versatile, industrially applicable polymer blending process. On the surface of this composite, PDMS is distributed in the form of microdomains embedded in a PTU matrix. The composite inherited not only good mechanical properties originating from PTU but also promising fouling-release (FR) properties due to the presence of PDMS on the surface. It was shown that the preferential segregation of PDMS domains at the polymer/air interface could be attributed to the difference in the surface free energy of PDMS and PTU. The PDMS microdomains at the PTU/air interface significantly reduced the barnacle adhesion strength on the composite. Both the pseudo- and natural barnacle adhesion strength on the composite was approximately 0.1 MPa, similar to that on pure PDMS. The pseudo-barnacle adhesion on reference surfaces AlMg3 and PTU reached approximately 4 and 6 MPa, respectively. Natural barnacles could not be removed intact from AlMg3 and PTU surfaces without breaking the shell, indicating that the adhesion strength was higher than the mechanical strength of a barnacle shell (approximately 0.4 MPa). The integrity of PDMS microdomains was maintained after 12 months of immersion in seawater and barnacle removal. No surface deteriorations were found. In short, the composite showed excellent potential as a long-term stable FR coating for marine applications.

Amphiphilic Marine Antifouling Coatings Based on a Hydrophilic Polyvinylpyrrolidone and Hydrophobic Fluorine-Silicon-Containing Block Copolymer.

The development of environmentally friendly and highly efficient antifouling coatings is vastly desirable in the marine industry. Herein, we prepared a novel amphiphilic block copolymer that combined hydrophilic polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) with hydrophobic poly(1-(1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecyloxy)-3-(3,6,9-trioxadecyloxy)-propan-2-yl acrylate) (PFA) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The amphiphilic copolymer (PVP-PFA-PDMS) was blended into a cross-linked PDMS matrix to form a set of controlled surface composition and surface-renewal coatings with efficient antifouling and fouling-release properties. These coatings incorporated the biofouling settlement resistance ability attributed to the hydrophilic PVP segments and the reduced adhesion strength attributed to the low surface energy of fluorine-silicon-containing segments. As expected, the coatings showed an excellent antifouling performance against bacteria and marine unicellular Navicula parva diatoms (98.1 and 98.5% of reduction, respectively) and fouling-release performance against pseudobarnacle adhesion (84.3% of reduction) compared to the pristine PDMS coating. Moreover, a higher-content PVP-based coatings presented higher ability to resist biofouling adhesion. The nontoxic antifouling coating developed in this paper hold the potential to be applied in a variety of marine industrial facilities.

Degradable hyaluronic acid/chitosan polyelectrolyte multilayers with marine fouling-release properties

Polysaccharide multilayers consisting of hyaluronic acid and chitosan were prepared by layer-by-layer assembly. To be used in seawater, the multilayers were crosslinked to a different degree using thermal or chemical methods. ATR-FTIR revealed different amide densities as a result of the crosslinking conditions. AFM showed that the crosslinking affected the roughness and swelling behavior of the coatings. The stability and degradability of the multilayers in aqueous environments were monitored with spectroscopic ellipsometry. The resistance of the coatings against non-specific protein adsorption was characterized by SPR spectroscopy. Settlement assays using Ulva linza zoospores and removal assays using the diatom Navicula incerta showed that the slowly degradable coatings were less prone to fouling than the strongly crosslinked ones. Thus, the coatings were a suitable model system to show that crosslinking the multilayers under mild conditions and equipping the coatings with controlled degradation rates enhances their antifouling and fouling-release properties against marine fouling organisms.

Sol-Gel-Based Hybrid Materials as Antifouling and Fouling-Release Coatings for Marine Applications.

Hybrid materials (HMs) offer unique properties as they combine inorganic and organic components into a single material. Here, we developed HM coatings for marine antifouling applications using sol-gel chemistry and naturally occurring polysaccharides. The coatings were characterized by spectroscopic ellipsometry, contact angle goniometry, AFM, and ATR-FTIR, and their stability was tested in saline media. Marine antifouling and fouling-release properties were tested in laboratory assays against the settlement of larvae of the barnacle Balanus improvisus and against the settlement and removal of the diatom Navicula incerta. Furthermore, laboratory data were confirmed in short-term dynamic field assays in Florida, USA. All hybrid coatings revealed a superior performance in the assays compared to a hydrophobic reference. Within the hybrids, those with the highest degree of hydrophilicity and negative net charge across the surface performed best. Alginate and heparin showed good performance, making these hybrid materials promising building blocks for fouling-resistant coatings.

Preparation and antifouling performance evaluation of fluorine-containing amphiphilic silica nanoparticles

Ocean-going ships, deep-sea equipment, coastal facilities, and other underwater surfaces are often attached to and fouled by marine microorganisms, animals, and plants, leading to damage, equipment failure or major economic losses in severe cases. Therefore, it is of great significance to take measures to prevent marine biofouling. To date, no single eco-friendly technology has been developed to achieve good antifouling effects. Therefore, the combination of multiple antifouling factors is still one of the main strategies to strengthen antibiofouling performance. In this paper, amphiphilic block copolymer (PTFEMA-co-PSBMA) functionalized silica (SiO2) nanoparticles of SiO2-g-(PTFEMA-co-PSBMA) were prepared by surface initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP), and then they were physically blended with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix to prepare one kind of novel antifouling coating. Compared with control silicone rubber coating and bare SiO2-dopped silicone rubber coating, the experiment results show that the diatom density on the surface of the copolymer functionalized silica nanoparticle-dopped coating is reduced by approximately 30 % and 50 %, respectively. Furthermore, upon employing washing process, it is found that the highest removal rate of diatoms on the surface of the copolymer functionalized silica nanoparticle coating is 50 %, which is approximately twice the removal rate of the unmodified SiO2 silicone rubber coating. Finally, it is found that the surface of the copolymer functionalized silica nanoparticle coating still has good antifouling and fouling release properties upon encountering wear test. These above results prove that the coatings with functionalized nanosilica nanoparticles have better antifouling performance. Current strategy in this work provides a new route for developing environmentally friendly fouling-releasing antifouling coatings.

A polyvinylpyrrolidone-based surface-active copolymer for an effective marine antifouling coating

Currently, it is highly desirable to develop a stable and effective antifouling coating in maritime industries. In this work, a novel surface-active copolymer basing on hydrophilic polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and hydrophobic poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) was designed and incorporated into a crosslinked PDMS matrix to form a surface-renewable antifouling coating. In the copolymer, PVP segments possessed a chemical stability and could prevent the settlement of fouling organisms attributable to its strong hydrophilicity; PDMS endowed the copolymer with compatibility to PDMS matrix and could efficiently reduce the fouling adhesion strength attributable to the low surface energy. Based on the surface-active copolymer, the coating could be reconstructed underwater in response to the environment forming a renewable surface to promote the fouling-release property. In addition, a set of controllable composition coatings were prepared to investigate the effects of surface chemistry on antifouling and fouling-release performance. Laboratory bioassays against marine unicellular diatom adhesion (∼99 % reduction) and mimetic barnacle attachment (∼81 % reduction) demonstrated an outstanding antifouling and fouling-release property of the copolymer-based coating compared to pristine PDMS, and the coating with a higher PVP content exhibited a better performance. Moreover, a long-term antifouling capability in marine field test (∼4 months) was also demonstrated. This work may offer a promising solution to the problems induced by marine biofouling.

Antifouling thin-film composite membranes with multi-defense properties by controllably constructing amphiphilic diblock copolymer brush layer

We developed a novel amphiphilic copolymer architecture for thin-film composite (TFC) membranes to integrate “resistant” and “release” strategies against membrane fouling. Two materials were sequentially grafted on TFC reverse osmosis membrane surfaces via dual surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP): zwitterionic polymer, poly[2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl-dimethyl-(3-sulfopropyl) ammonium hydroxide] (pMEDSAH) with strong hydrophilicity and poly(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl methacrylate) (pTFEMA) with low surface energy. According to MD simulation and theoretical quantification, the p(MEDSAH-b-TFEMA)-grafted membranes (i.e. amphiphilic TFC membranes) possess not only strong hydration, but also lower surface energy, which yield the features of both fouling resistant and fouling release properties. The superiority of possessing multi-defense properties was further confirmed by the long-term, multi-cycle membrane fouling and cleaning filtration. Compared with pristine TFC and hydrophilic TFC membranes, the amphiphilic TFC membranes showed not only less water flux decline during the fouling filtration, but also higher water flux recovery after cleaning by water. Both theoretical and experimental results strongly suggest that the amphiphilic TFC membrane is a novel candidate for improving membrane antifouling properties.

Ultrafiltration Membranes Coated by Amphiphilic Copolymers Containing Superhydrophilic Zwitterionic and Hydrophobic POSS Moieties Showing Improved Fouling Resistance/Release Properties

AbstractUltrafiltration membranes coated with amphiphilic copolymers containing superhydrophilic zwitterionic moieties and hydrophobic POSS moieties (PSM‐coated membranes) are prepared. The free radical polymerization of 2‐(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate (DMAEMA) and 3‐(3,5,7,9,11,13,15‐heptaisobutylpentacyclo[9.5.1.13,9.15,15.17,13]octasiloxane‐1‐yl)propyl methacrylate (MAPOSS) monomers is used to prepare a series of copolymers containing different compositions of DMAEMA and MAPOSS units (PDMs). The DMAEMA units in the PDM‐coated membranes are subsequently converted to sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA) units using 1,3‐propane sultone (post‐zwitterionization) to give the PSM‐coated membranes. The PSM‐coated membranes show improved fouling resistance/release properties, compared with a neat polysulfone (PSf) membrane. The improved fouling resistance properties of the PSM‐coated membranes are attributed to the superhydrophilic zwitterionic moieties, which form a hydration layer on the membrane surface via electrostatic interactions between the zwitterions and water molecules. Moreover, the total surface energy (γS) value of the PSM‐coated membrane is smaller than that of the PSf membrane due to the hydrophobic POSS moieties. This results in the superior fouling release properties of the PSM‐coated membranes.

Ecofriendly silicon-poly(lactic acid) hybrid antifouling coatings

Societal and environmental constraints have led to changes in international and European regulations to limit the use of biocides in antifouling paints. In this context, coatings combining fouling release properties and leaching of active molecules are sought. The objectives of this study are to conceive a hybrid system for antifouling paint and to observe the influence of the physio-chemical properties of the binders on its antifouling activity. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) homopolymers have already been used as binders for different antifouling strategies. The use of a block copolymer based on PLA and PDMS is likely to allow the design of paint with biocides release associated to fouling release properties in order to be more efficient with a lower environmental impact.Triblock copolymers with different molar compositions have been synthesized. The properties of the corresponding films have been determined in distilled water (adhesion to the support, hydrophobicity). Then formulated paints have been immersed in Lorient harbor to evaluate their erosion, degradation and antifouling efficacy. Furthermore, their biocide release kinetics were studied in artificial seawater to evaluate their environmental impact.The silicon-poly(lactic acid) paints have shown an efficiency superior to a commercial paint during their in situ immersion (19 months) with a lower biocides amount (14 %).

Microfluidic accumulation assay to quantify the attachment of the marine bacterium Cobetia marina on fouling-release coatings.

Testing the adhesion of marine biofilm formers on bioresistant coatings is important to determine their fouling-release and antifouling properties. A dynamic attachment assay for the marine bacterium Cobetia marina (C. marina) was developed to test the adhesion on coatings and bioresistant surfaces. With well-defined culture conditions, the reproducibility of the microfluidic accumulation experiments with C. marina was verified using self-assembling monolayers as model surfaces. The assay discriminated the attachment of C. marina on four different surfaces with different wettability and protein resistances. In addition to these benchmark experiments on self-assembled monolayers, the adhesion of C. marina on polyglycerol coatings with different thicknesses was investigated.

Preparation and evaluation of fouling-release properties of amphiphilic perfluoropolyether-zwitterion cross-linked polymer films

The biofouling of marine structures presents a problem for maritime industries, including increasing fuel and operational costs. There has been much work developing and evaluating chemically ‘ambiguous’ amphiphilic coatings based upon hydrophobic fluoropolymer and hydrophilic poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG). Many of these coatings have shown good fouling-release performance against diatoms, which present a fouling challenge to commercially-available state-of-the-art silicone-based fouling-release coatings. However, PEG is prone to oxidation, which limits its practical use in the marine environment, and thus an alternative hydrophilic material would be desirable in the future development of amphiphilic coatings. In this regard, zwitterionic materials are emerging as a promising class of hydrophilic antifouling material, which we hypothesized would be a suitable alternative to PEG within amphiphilic coatings. To test this hypothesis, cross-linked amphiphilic films consisting of commercially available perfluoropolyethers and the zwitterionic monomer sulfobetaine methacrylate were developed and studied. The difficulty in formulating these chemically incompatible species was overcome by careful choice of solvents and a series of prototype cross-linked films were prepared in which increasing quantities of zwitterion were systematically incorporated. The fouling-release performance of these films was tested against the diatom Navicula incerta, a common microfouling organism responsible for the formation of so-called ‘slime’ layers, and antifouling performance with cypris larvae of two barnacle species, Balanus amphitrite, and Balanus improvisus. To expand the scope of the study, the clinically-relevant biofilm-forming pathogen Staphylococcus aureus, which is a major culprit in the infection and failure of millions of indwelling medical devices, was also evaluated. Results indicate that the incorporation of zwitterion into perfluoropolyethers leads to significant improvements in fouling-release performance and these amphiphilic coatings display potential in fouling-release applications.

Using hydrodynamic testing to assess the performance of fouling control coatings

Static immersion studies are commonly used to assess the performance of fouling control coatings. While these tests provide valuable data, it is also of importance to understand the drag forces associated with the accrued fouling communities and the velocities required for fouling removal. Replicates of five commercially available coatings were deployed at two test sites located along the east coast of Florida. After four months of immersion, the coatings were subjected to known water velocities in a high-speed boat modified for hydrodynamic testing. Hard fouling adhesion measurements were taken to determine the attachment strength of organisms which remained on the panels. The type and extant of fouling varied based on static immersion location, this in turn influenced the fouling removal and the associated drag. While fouling removal was observed on all coatings, the percent removal was related to the coating type and the overall community structure. Those organisms which have a higher profile were easily removed. Lower form foulers, especially those with hard structures, had a minimum removal even at some of the top speeds. The data collected from this series of tests, enabled the fouling control and fouling release properties of each coating to be characterized.

Antifouling Properties of Dendritic Polyglycerols against Marine Macrofouling Organisms.

Dendritic polyglycerols (PGs) were synthesized and postmodified by grafting of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) and polypropylene glycol (PPG) diglycidyl ether groups, and their antifouling and fouling-release properties were tested. Coating characterization by spectroscopic ellipsometry, contact angle goniometry, attenuated total internal reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and atomic force microscopy showed brushlike morphologies with a high degree of microscale roughness and the ability to absorb large amounts of water within seconds. PGs with three different thicknesses were tested in laboratory assays against settlement of larvae of the barnacle Balanus improvisus and against the settlement and removal of zoospores of the alga Ulva linza. Very low coating thicknesses, e.g., 11 nm, reduced the settlement of barnacles, under static conditions, to 2% compared with 55% for an octadecyltrichlorosilane reference surface. In contrast, zoospores of U. linza settled readily but the vast majority were removed by exposure to a shear force of 52 Pa. Both PEG and PPG modification increased the antifouling properties of the PG films, providing a direct comparison of the ultralow fouling properties of all three polymers. Both, the modified and the nonmodified PGs are promising components for incorporation into amphiphilic fouling-resistant coatings.