Fouling Communities Research Articles

Evaluation of Ship Hull Fouling In Various Seaports Using The MOORA Method

Ports Due to shipping, large coastal towns are vulnerable to exotic species. The Port of Recife gets an average of 491 vessels annually from other regions of Brazil and from abroad. Identify and monitor fresh biological intrusions, which marine creatures ignore the purpose is to understand how ships are moved around the region. Thus, 32 ships of different nationalities were examined between November 2005 and March 2006, samples were collected, and macrofauna were identified. of companion creatures Twenty-eight sessile species, primarily Cirripedia palanomorpha and Lepatomorpha, eight sessile animals, namely Mytilidae and Dreichenidae, and twenty-three free-living species, specifically Cabrellidae, Commaridae, Tanoidacea, and Tanoidacea Polychaeta, were discovered. Conchoderma auretum, Amphibalnus subalpidus, and Halliplanella lineata were also discovered for the first time in the coastal region of the state of Pernambuco. Conchoderma was the first to occur exactly in a locality that had been recorded for the Brazilian coast. Invasive species in the city of Recife's littoral area It was determined how Amphibalanus reticulatus and Mytilopsis entered the country. leucophyta. For the area, Megabalanus coccophoma was regarded as an endangered invasive species. Costs are increased by extra NIS in stabilized water and mitigation efforts to lessen the transport of sediments. utilizing smaller vessels in European waters at proportionately higher costs the operational cost of NIS reduction measures, according to our estimates, may be between 1.6% and 4% of the yearly running cost per vessel. However, variations in the species' life histories and contamination by NIS brought on by local species More than just fouling antifouling coatings and their resistance to fouling can have an impact on fuel usage. As a result, NIS is more expensive than NIS's higher fuel consumption. Mitigation steps might not be very expensive.

The Effect of Husbandry and Original Location on the Fouling of Transplanted Panels

The best way to stop the introduction of non-indigenous species (NISs) is by preventing their transport. In the case of ship hulls, this may be accomplished by managing entrainment onto the hull. This study was designed to examine the role of hull husbandry, i.e., cleaning and grooming, in fouling community structure and to determine the effect of husbandry on the recolonization of surfaces after a transplant was performed. A series of panels were placed at two locations along the east coast of Florida (Port Canaveral and Sebastian Inlet) that are typified by distinct fouling communities. Panels were subjected to one of three treatments: groomed weekly, cleaned every two months, or freely fouling. After four months, all panels were cleaned and transplanted between sites; no further husbandry was performed. Fouling community composition and coverage was characterized at monthly intervals both before and after transplantation. Hull husbandry was found to affect coverage and composition, with groomed panels carrying a lower cover of macrofouling in general. The effect of the original location on subsequent fouling composition and recolonization by specific organisms was confirmed for encrusting bryozoans, barnacles, sponges, and tunicates. Hull husbandry also affected subsequent fouling with specific preferences shown for surfaces that had been groomed, cleaned and undisturbed.

Bioinvasion of Benthic Invertebrates in a Eutrophicated Tropical Estuarine System in South America (Santos, Brazil)

The economic losses due to bioinvasion in Brazil were estimated to be over USD 100 billion since 1984; however, these values are mostly related to terrestrial invasive species, whereas the financial losses in the marine realm continue to be ignored. The bioinvasion of benthic fauna was evaluated in the estuarine channel of Santos Harbor, Brazil. Three recruitment plates were spread along the estuarine channel to assess their colonization progress during two periods: April until July and August until September in 2019. Inner stations presented haline stratification, and low values of dissolved oxygen were registered as signs of eutrophication. Among the identified taxa, six species were considered exotic to the Brazilian coastline: Branchiomma luctuosum, Hydroides elegans, Bugula neritina, Styela plicata, Clavelina oblonga, and Botrylloides giganteus. The diversity was low due to the monospecific dominance of B. luctuosum, which occupied 73.4% and 42.4% of the recruitment plates in the first and second campaigns, respectively. It was possible to observe a gradient pattern in the biovolume averages between the monitoring points, which tended to be higher at the station closer to the sea, despite the lack of significant differences among them. The recruitment plate technique offered reliable results for the identification of invasive species regarding fouling communities along the Santos Harbor channel.

Long-Term Succession on Offshore Wind Farms and the Role of Species Interactions

The presence of biofouling communities in very large densities in offshore wind farms (OWFs) generates broad effects on the structure and functioning of the marine ecosystem, yet the mechanisms behind the temporal development of these communities remain poorly understood. Here, we use an 11-year series on biofouling fauna from OWFs installed in Belgian waters to determine succession patterns and to unravel the role of biological interactions in shaping community development. Our analysis shows that biological interactions, besides age and location, affect diversity patterns in OWFs. The abundance of foundation species, predators, and space occupiers was significantly related to richness and/or diversity. The trends in richness, diversity, and community composition suggest that no permanent stable climax is reached after 11 years, which can be linked to the dynamic and disturbance-prone environment of offshore fouling communities.

An Overview of Marine Non-Indigenous Species Found in Three Contrasting Biogeographic Metropolitan French Regions: Insights on Distribution, Origins and Pathways of Introduction

Biological invasions are one of the main global threats to biodiversity in terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems worldwide, requiring effective inventorying and monitoring programs. Here, we present an updated list of non-indigenous species in French marine and transitional waters. Focused on eukaryote pluricellular species found throughout the three metropolitan French marine regions (Western Mediterranean Sea, Bay of Biscay and the Northern Seas), a total of 342 non-indigenous, including 42 cryptogenic, species are listed as having been introduced since the 13th century. The majority of the species originated from the temperate Northern Pacific. They mainly arrived through both ballast and hull fouling and also are associated with shellfish farming activities. Most of them have been introduced since the 1970s, a time when maritime and aquaculture trade intensified. Despite important human-aided opportunities for species transfer between the three marine regions (for instance, via recreational boating or aquaculture transfers), only a third of these NIS are common to all regions, as expected due to their environmental specificities.

Semantic segmentation for fully automated macrofouling analysis on coatings after field exposure

Biofouling is a major challenge for sustainable shipping, filter membranes, heat exchangers, and medical devices. The development of fouling-resistant coatings requires the evaluation of their effectiveness. Such an evaluation is usually based on the assessment of fouling progression after different exposure times to the target medium (e.g. salt water). The manual assessment of macrofouling requires expert knowledge about local fouling communities due to high variances in phenotypical appearance, has single-image sampling inaccuracies for certain species, and lacks spatial information. Here an approach for automatic image-based macrofouling analysis was presented. A dataset with dense labels prepared from field panel images was made and a convolutional network (adapted U-Net) for the semantic segmentation of different macrofouling classes was proposed. The establishment of macrofouling localization allows for the generation of a successional model which enables the determination of direct surface attachment and in-depth epibiotic studies.

MULTI-YEAR SUCCESSION OF BIOFOULING COMMUNITIES ON UNDERWATER ARTIFICIAL STRUCTURES IN THE APHOTIC ZONE OF THE SEA OF OKHOTSK

А 10-year succession of the fouling community inhabiting underwater manmade structures at a depth of 80–90 m was described using the materials from regular video surveys of the technical installations on the southwestern shelf of the Sea of Okhotsk. A general scheme of macrofouling community developmental stages in steps of 1–2 years has been compiled both for the intact community and for sites subjected to the single or multiple hydrodynamic cleaning. For each stage we visually estimated the projective cover of macrofouling and identified the characteristic dominant species down to the smallest possible taxon. The first two years of the intact community are characterized by low projective cover (up to 50%), in the third year and further there is a sharp increase in the abundance and diversity of macrofouling organisms. Barnacles Chirona evermanni, sponges Phakellia sp., bryozoans Securiflustra securifrons, and ascidians Boltenia ovifera were noted among the dominant species in the community older than two years. The early stages of restorative succession differ from the intact succession in terms of dominant species and developmental rates.

Are urban mangroves emerging hotspots of non-indigenous species? A study on the dynamics of macrobenthic fouling communities in fringing red mangrove prop roots

Urbanization represents a radical transformation of natural habitats that alters all the biotic and abiotic properties governing ecosystems. Urban expansion often results in oversimplified communities, where most specialists decline or disappear and a few generalist or exotic species become dominant. The consequences of urban expansion in mangrove forests are understudied, although these systems have been altered by humans for centuries and the growth of human population in tropical coasts is expected to be faster than in higher latitudes. To assess the importance of indigenous and non-indigenous species in driving temporal and spatial changes in community structure of red-mangrove prop-root macrobenthic communities, we studied heavily altered mangrove forests from two bays from the Caribbean coast of Colombia in 2005 and 2021. In all places/periods, the community richness was low, a few taxa were dominant (11 taxa, out of 40, comprised ~ 90% of the total abundance) and 35% of those taxa were non-indigenous species whose presence is related with known stressors in urbanized systems. Hence, call for efforts to assess whether urban mangrove forests are emerging as hotspots for non-indigenous biota. Community structure did not change within or between bays, there was a clear, significant turnover of core species between 2005 and 2021, with non-indigenous species playing a prominent role in this variability. This was puzzling—ecological theory asserts that the abundance of a species is related to their permanence: core species are relatively stable through time, while rare species appear or disappear—but this may not apply for stressed communities influenced by non-indigenous biota.

Economic analysis of ship operation using a new antifouling strategy

Using an alternative biofouling cleaning system that is operated en route of cruising, the lifecycle operations, and maintenance costs are expected to reduce. We provide a preliminary analysis of the impact of cleaning approaches on fuel consumption based on actual data generated from 14 international containerships. We also construct a model for economic comparison of various antifouling strategies, including the innovative system that can be operated by the crew onboard the ship. The case study for a 146,700 GT containership indicates cost savings of 7% (5.36%–11.44%) are achievable through the use of a relatively frequent hydro-blasting system in addition to periodical overall drydock cleaning. The economic model and resulting cost estimates can be used to project costs due to hull fouling for the fleet as a whole.

A decade of invertebrate recruitment at Santa Catalina Island, California.

Marine fouling communities have long provided model systems for studying the ecology of community development, and settlement plates are the tool of choice for this purpose. Decades of plate deployments provide a baseline against which present-day trends can be interpreted, with one classic trend being the ultimate dominance of plates by colonial and encrusting taxa. Here we report the results of annual deployments of settlement plates from 2010 to 2021 in the shallow sub-tidal of southern California, where the recruitment of invertebrates and algae was recorded photographically, and resolved to functional group (solitary, encrusting, and arborescent) and the lowest taxon possible. The communities on these plates differed among years, with trends in abundances varying by functional group and taxon; solitary taxa consistently were abundant, but encrusting taxa declined in abundance. Seawater temperature and the subsurface concentration of chlorophyll a differed among years, and there was a weak inverse association between temperature and the abundances of encrusting taxa. Long-term increases in seawater temperature therefore could serve as a mechanism causing fouling communities to change. Because of the prominence of encrusting taxa in fouling communities, the shifts in abundance of this functional group reported here may portend ecologically significant changes in fouling communities exposed to warmer seawater because of an alleviation of competition for a classically limiting resource (i.e., space).

Lampenflora as a result of karst cave equipment for excursions

This review is devoted to the problem of the development of “lampenflora” - phototrophic fouling communities in karst caves’ areas with artificial lighting used for tourism purposes. The experience of domestic and foreign colleagues helps to understand the causes of its occurrence, the conditions for the formation and development of communities; describes the mechanisms of adaptation of individual species and communities to the complex conditions of underground ecosystems. Lampenflora is not typical for the cave environment, and in this regard, the adverse consequences of its presence are found in the form of an impact on the local biota and abiotic parameters of the environment. The review compares lampenflora and natural communities of phototrophs in the entrance zones of caves illuminated by sunlight.

Biotic resistance of native fouling communities to bioinvasions could not be demonstrated by transplant experiments in Northern Italy

Biotic resistance is considered an important driver in the establishment of non-indigenous species (NIS), but experiments in the marine environment have led to contradictory results. In this context, a transplant experiment of fouling communities was carried out over five months. Settlement panels were moved from low impact (species-rich native communities) to high impact sites by NIS in two Italian areas to test the biotic resistance hypothesis. Fouling communities displayed significant differences among treatments before and after the transplant, thus indicating the maintenance of a peculiar fouling community in transplanted panels. On the other hand, newly recruited species were similar between treatments and neither a facilitation nor a mitigation role from native fouling communities on NIS was observed. Our results highlight the importance to better investigate the factors affecting the high variability obtained in experiments testing this hypothesis, with the aim to identify potential solutions for NIS management in ports.

Techno–Economic and Risk Evaluation of Combined Cycle Propulsion Systems in Large Container Ships

Owing to the stringent regulations on pollutant emissions that are imposed by the International Maritime Organization and increasing fuel prices, there has been significant research on developing cleaner fuels and novel propulsion systems. This study presents a techno-economical and risk assessment method for evaluating alternative propulsion technologies and cleaner fuels as substitutes for heavy fuel oil and two-stroke diesel engines in marine transportation. This analysis was carried out for two different journeys. Accordingly, we evaluated the economic benefits of using an enhanced intercooler/reheat combined gas and steam cycle or simple and intercooler/reheat combined gas and steam cycles that were fueled by marine diesel oil or liquified natural gas instead of a two-stroke diesel engine that was fueled by MDO as the propulsion system in a large container ship, considering different shipping routes. The results highlighted the advantages of implementing the simple, intercooler/reheat, and enhanced combined gas and steam cycles as propulsion systems. A sensitivity analysis was performed to investigate the effects of the fuel cost, capital cost, and hull fouling resistance on the economic analysis. For the routes that were considered herein, compared to a two-stroke diesel engine that was fueled by MDO, the simple, intercooler/reheat, and enhanced gas and steam combined cycles that were fueled by LNG increased the net present value by 78.3%, 78.5%, and 76.4%, respectively, and reduced the payback period by 38.8%, 38.9%, and 35%, respectively. Furthermore, the fuel and capital costs had a significant influence on the overall economic profit.

The Role of Invasion Status and Taxon of Basibionts in Marine Community Structure

Studies on non-native epibionts typically focus on the organismal-level impacts of epibiosis on basibionts, rather than community-level impacts of this relationship. The purpose of our study was to evaluate if non-native basibionts in general facilitate invasions through epibiosis in Maine compared to native basibiont species. We collected 64 basibiont assemblages including replicate samples of 10 different basibiont taxa on the central Maine coast in October 2019. Each basibiont and associated epibionts were identified to genus, classified as native or non-native to the region where they were collected, and weighed. We found that while there was no association between invasion status of the epibiont and the basibiont, native basibionts had a significantly higher Shannon Diversity Index than non-native basibionts. Although diversity of epibionts was greater on native basibionts, the percentage of invaders varied across basibiont taxa. Specific basibiont taxon characteristics may be more important than status because different taxa have different surface topographies, resulting in varying settlement among epibiont species. Our study indicates that there is differential settlement of epibiont taxa across basibiont taxa, which may help predict, based on surface characteristics, which species support more epibiont taxa. This study, as a snapshot of floating dock fouling communities within a 10 km radius, may indicate that non-native basibionts play a role in changing community structure. Expanding the scope of this initial study to include a wider taxonomic and geographic range should help determine if epibiosis is truly a facilitative process in invasions.

Salt marshes as the final watershed fate for meso- and microplastic contamination: A case study from Southern Brazil

Plastics pose a major threat to aquatic ecosystems especially in smaller size fractions. Salt marshes play a crucial role in maintaining the coastal zone and aquatic food web, yet their contamination, including by plastic materials, is still poorly investigated. This work investigated meso- (MEP, 5–25 mm) and microplastic (MIP, 1 μm–5 mm) contamination of a salt marsh, which reached average levels of 279.63 ± 410.12 items kg−1, 366.92 ± 975.18 items kg−1, and 8.89 ± 8.75 items L−1 in surface sediment, sediment cores and water, respectively. Photomicrographs revealed a complex fouling community on plastics surface for both different salt marsh zones and plastic formats. Abundance of plastics in sediment was higher in the dryer, vegetated zones compared to flooded, unvegetated zones. This is consistent with the role of vegetation as a trap for solid litter and final fate of plastic deposition, but also with local hydrodynamics influencing deposition pattern. Plastics were detected up to 66 cm-depth, presenting higher levels at surface sediments. It was also possible to identify the main groups of microorganisms (1638 bacterial cells, 318 microalgae cells, and 20049.93 μm2 of filamentous fungi) composing the Plastisphere communities on all plastic items recorded in the different zones. These results are a pioneer contribution, highlighting that regional salt marshes participate in sequestration and longstanding accumulation of plastic particles in estuarine environments, before exportation to the ocean.

Dark survival in biofilm-forming microalgae: potential for colonizing benthic ecosystems.

The biofilm-forming microalgae are known to experience periods of continuous darkness (upto several days), in addition to the natural day-night cycle, especially in the intertidal sediment regions (when transported to deeper sediments) and the ships' ballast water tanks (during voyages). However, the information on community and physiological responses to different periods of darkness is limited. Here, the survival capability of biofilm-forming microalgae to varying periods of darkness (7-35 days) and the growth patterns upon resumption of normal 12 hlight:dark photocycle has been addressed through simulation experiments. Diatoms dominated the seawater biofilms, but the dark survival period varied and was species-specific. Of the 25 diatoms, only Amphora, potential toxin producer, followed by Navicula remained viable and photosynthetically healthy under darkness without undergoing asexual reproduction. Both diatoms are essential contributors to fouling and microphytobenthic community. Upon re-exposure of dark-adapted biofilms to 12 hlight:dark photocycle, the improvement in photosynthetic efficiency and resumption of growth via asexual-reproduction was observed. However, the lag-phase duration increased with a long dark history. Nevertheless, eurytolerant nature and high dark survival capability (with its quick response to light) of Amphora and Navicula indicated that they have the potential to colonize benthic-ecosystems thus impacting the benthic and fouling community.

Assessing the potential for invasive species introductions and secondary spread using vessel movements in maritime ports

Global shipping facilitates the introduction of invasive species and parasites via ballast water and hull fouling. Regional management of invasives may be strengthened by identifying the major routes in a network, to allow for targeted ship inspections. This study used cargo shipping records to establish the connectivity of shipping routes between ports in Ireland and other nations. 9291 records were analysed, investigating vessel residence and journey times. On average, vessels spent up to five days in port and less than five days at sea. However, there was strong variation, with general cargo ships recording up to 13 days in port. A horizon scan for species likely to invade in Ireland was incorporated for five species and their associated parasites: American razor clam, Asian shore crab, Brush clawed shore crab, Chinese mitten crab and American slipper limpet. Routes of concern are highlighted and a general framework for effective management is outlined.

Marine biofouling organisms on beached, buoyant and benthic plastic debris in the Catalan Sea

Plastic debris provides long-lasting substrates for benthic organisms, thus acting as a potential vector for their dispersion. Its interaction with these colonizers is, however, still poorly known. This study examines fouling communities on beached, buoyant and benthic plastic debris in the Catalan Sea (NW Mediterranean), and characterizes the plastic type. We found 14 specimens belonging to two phyla (Annelida and Foraminifera) on microplastics, and more than 400 specimens belonging to 26 species in 10 phyla (Annelida, Arthropoda, Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Chordata, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Porifera and Sipuncula) on macroplastics. With 15 species, bryozoans are the most diverse group on plastics. We also report 17 egg cases of the catshark Scyliorhinus sp., and highlight the implications for their dispersal. Our results suggest that plastic polymers may be relevant for distinct fouling communities, likely due to their chemical structure and/or surface properties. Our study provides evidence that biofouling may play a role in the sinking of plastic debris, as the most abundant fouled plastics had lower densities than seawater, and all bryozoan species were characteristic of shallower depths than those sampled. More studies at low taxonomic level are needed in order to detect new species introduction and potential invasive species associated with plastic debris.

Effects of currents, waves, and biofilms on motion and surface contacts by tubeworm larvae swimming above or below surfaces

Larvae of many benthic marine invertebrates swim more slowly than the ambient water flow that carries them past surfaces where they might settle. Competent larvae of the tubeworm Hydroides elegans, abundant early colonists in warm-water fouling communities, were used to determine if active behavior by microscopic larvae carried in flowing water can affect their contacts with surfaces representing early stages of fouling community succession (clean flat surface, flat biofilm, biofilm on worm tubes). We studied larvae in waves and in the unidirectional flow used in earlier studies of larval settlement, and near surfaces above them (like those where fouling organisms recruit) or below them. We videotaped larval motion near surfaces in a small flume in which we mimicked fine-scale flow measured near surfaces in harbors. Swimming larvae within millimeters of surfaces moved up and down while being carried by horizontal flow, enhancing their contact rates with surfaces above and below them compared with dead larvae passively carried by the current. After contact, live larvae ‘bounced’ along the surface, sampling it many times per distance they were carried by the current, whereas dead larvae did not. Thus, active behaviors of larvae of H. elegans, which must touch a biofilmed surface to be stimulated to attach and metamorphose, enhance their contact with and exploration of surfaces in flowing water. These behaviors are effective in unidirectional flow and waves, for surfaces above or below larvae, and for smooth or rough surfaces, all of which are conditions that the larvae of fouling-community animals encounter in harbors.

Harbour type and use destination shape fouling community and non-indigenous species assemblage: A study of three northern Tyrrhenian port systems (Mediterranean Sea)

Fouling communities were studied in three port systems of Northern Tyrrhenian Sea (Western Mediterranean), focusing on the occurrence of non-indigenous species (NIS). For each port system two harbour types (large port and recreational marina) were sampled and, within each large port, fouling samples were collected considering two use destinations (commercial and touristic harbour). Among the 431 taxa identified, forty-two were alien or cryptogenic, four of which were new records for the study area. Harbour type and use destination shaped fouling communities and NIS assemblages, with their relative influence varying among different port systems. High fouling variability was detected within port environments and between different marinas. NIS showed the highest occurrence in large ports, in which the touristic harbour generally hosted the greatest amount. Therefore, the touristic harbours within large ports were identified as susceptible areas for NIS establishment and their possible subsequent spread at local scale through recreational maritime traffic.