Foster Placement Research Articles

Unemployment and foster home placements: estimating the net effect of provocation and inhibition.

This study sought, first, to explain and reconcile the provocation and inhibition theories of the effect of rising unemployment on the incidence of antisocial behavior. Second, it tested the hypothesis, implied by the provocation and inhibition theories, that the relationship between unemployment and foster home placements forms an inverted "U." The hypothesis was tested with data from California for 137 months beginning in February 1984. Findings showed that the hypothesis was supported. Rising joblessness increases the incidence of foster home placements among families that lose jobs or income. Levels of joblessness that threaten workers who remain employed, however, inhibit antisocial behavior and reduce the incidence of foster home placements. This means that accounting for the social costs of unemployment is more complicated than assumed under the provocation theory.

‘The past, the present, but never the future’: thematic representations of fostering disruption

The paper discusses some of the findings of a small‐scale explor‐atory research project which analysed the dynamics involved in substitute family care placements for young people, and assessed the processes demonstrated in fostering breakdowns in terms of the interactions, negotiations and adjustments between the re‐spective parties over time. The paper concentrates on three core and interlocking themes: first, the perception of foster placements as ‘second best’; secondly, the ‘images of family life’ permeating placements; and finally, the ‘nature vs. nurture’ debate which affected the ability of users and carers to sustain placements. These themes were selected for their significance in the development of an explanatory framework for understanding the interactional dynamics involved in placement disruption. The paper concludes with a discussion of the key implications for social work practice, considering foster carer training, sustaining placements, and part‐nership arrangements between the young people, their natural families, foster carers and social work professionals.

Grandparents as Parents: An Ecological Approach to Programming

Grandparents are being recycled as parents. Millions of grandparents have returned to the role of parent. Events such as divorce, loss of job or home, the death or incarceration of an adult child with children, or a teen pregnancy may abruptly propel a grandparent into a caregiving role. Grandparents may also step in when the needs of children go unmet for a period of time because of underlying situations such as child abuse, AIDS, substance abuse, and even the effects of welfare reform. (Becklund, 1993; De Toledo & Brown, 1995; Jendrek, 1994; and Yorkey, 1993). While the idea of children living with grandparents is not new, the frequency of grandparent care has increased and the reasons for this phenomenon have changed.These problems, and others, continue to increase the stress on families, and particularly the extended family. Any one of these conditions can seriously strain the ability of family members to sustain the integrity of the family system, and many times multiple conditions further compound the difficulties. Grandparents are called upon in increasing numbers to provide support and assistance to families in need of outside help (Burton, 1992; Creighton, 1991; Minkler, Driver, Roe & Bedeian, 1993; Minkler & Roe, 1993). This support and assistance now often involves full-time parenting of grandchildren.Over three million children currently live with their grandparents in a home where no biological parent is present. This represents a two-thirds increase in numbers during the past decade (Children's Defense Fund, 1997). In terms of actual numbers, Caucasian children represent the greatest sector of the population. Proportionately, however, over one child in eight from African-American families lives with a grandparent as head-of household, and in Hispanic families the ratio is one in sixteen. Grandparent-headed families with young children are found in approximately one in twenty five American households (U.S. Census Bureau, 1991).New Family TypeElder individuals have always played an important part in extended family support roles. Recently, however, the large numbers of parents who are failing, for one reason or another, to effectively parent and meet the developmental needs of their children have given rise to an increasing number of skipped generation families. In these families the biological parents are absent from the home over an extended period of time, and grandparents have had to step in to serve as the sole or primary caregivers for their grandchildren (Jendrek, 1993; Strom & Strom, 1993). Court systems may look to grandparents as an alternative to foster placement, and grandparents may assume a primary caretaker role out of a sense of responsibility or affection for the grandchildren. In many instances, a surviving grandparent must function as a single parent. The number and commonality of this kind of household has developed into a new and rapidly growing family typology (De Toledo & Brown, 1995; Smith, Dannison & Vacha-Haase, 1998).The stress that grandparents experience as repeat parents is quite different from the routine kinds of stress usually associated with raising children. Many of the grandchildren have substantial unmet physical, developmental, and emotional needs, and share an orientation toward and a history of family crisis that is different than the world of grandparents (Smith & Dannison, 1998). Often, grandparents are encouraged by social service agencies or courts involved with the parent(s) of these children to become custodial caregivers for one of several young siblings. Limited public funding often pressures agencies to place at-risk children with relatives to avoid more costly out-of-family placements (Dannison & Nieuwenhuis, 1996).Many grandparent caregivers find their personal resources stretched to the limit. Issues of health, financial stability, and parenting are salient to these individuals. Almost one-half of those caring for grandchildren are grandmothers without partners (Creighton, 1991) and serving as primary caretaker for more than one dependent is not unusual (Minkler & Roe, 1993). …

The relationship between problem disclosure, coping strategies and placement outcome in foster adolescents

Adolescence has been described as a period where normal developmental stresses are dealt with depending on past experiences and current demands. Foster care inherently brings with it many additional stresses which must be dealt with at a period where many young people find even normal developmental tasks overpowering. This study examines problem disclosure and coping strategies in 21 foster adolescents. Highly significant results indicate that teenagers who have experienced crisis foster placements were more likely to disclose concern over parent and authority control over their lives. Additionally, these young people seemed more likely to use non-productive coping strategies when dealing with everyday problems.

No place like home: lessons learned and lessons forgotten –the Children Act 1948

The Children Act 1948 emphasizes foster care as the alternative provision for children who cannot be cared for by their own families; it also underlines the responsibility of the state to provide good alternative homes where necessary. The Act reflects contemporary developments in psychological thinking about the importance of attachment relationships, and a recognition, derived in part from the experiences of evacuation, of the harmful effects on children of separation from their families. However, greater awareness, from the 1970s on, of the deficiencies of the state as parent and the complexity of relationships between children, their birth parents and foster families led to the promulgation of ‘inclusive’ and ‘task‐centred’ models of foster care, reflected in the shift of nomenclature from foster ‘parenting’ to foster ‘caring’. These approaches may, however, be in danger of minimizing both the attachment needs of many children and young people within the foster placement and the parenting role which is appropriate in many placements. A model of foster care, derived directly from the first Children Act, which stresses these core relationships, should be developed alongside that which emphasizes task‐centred, time‐limited provision.

Fostering and adoption: the paediatrician's role in children who require substitute parental care

The work, traditionally known as ‘Medical Advice for Fostering and Adoption’ is work with Social Services departments and voluntary agencies who deal with children who cannot live with their original families for a variety of reasons. The needs of children and the similarity of principles involved in caring for children outside the family of origin mean that the spectrum of services required for children can be seen as a continuum. This ranges from uncomplicated daycare, through respite care, contractual childminding, transitional family based foster placement, long-term family fostering, residential care, specialized fostering projects for older children and young people, such as remand fostering and community parent placements, to work promoting and supporting independent living in care leavers. This should be seen as a continuum of substitute parental care for children, provided according to their needs. The role of the paediatrician is to identify the current and future health needs of children and to give input to the whole process accordingly.

What makes a helpful grown up? Children's views of professionals in the mental health services

Children’s mental health has risen to the top of the social agenda in recent years but surprisingly little has been done systematically to collect and analyse their views of professional help. In this study the NUD•IST qualitative data analysis software was used to analyse 35 interviews with children and young adults aged between 7 and 20 and build a model of what makes a helpful grown up. It was also possible to discern what makes grown ups unhelpful and list some of the complaints the children had about their treatment. On coding the qualities of the helpful adult four major themes appeared: general qualities; counselling skills; ethical stance; and the ability to make things happen (helpful outcomes). The unhelpful adult was categorized in terms of: physical behaviour; verbal behaviour; social behaviour and attitudes. In terms of adult roles the three types of unhelpful behaviour are associated with parents, foster parents, residential workers in children’s homes and teachers. Unhelpful attitudes are associated with all adults whether carers or professionals. The children complained about foster and residential placements, the difficulty of actually telling adults they had a problem, the unfairness of the way some adults treated them and the help they should have had but either never received or which took too long to arrive. While making no claims for profundity this model of the helpful grown up is presented with considerable confidence. A finding was that the profession of the adult matters far less than whether or not they possess the qualities of the helpful grown up, and there is a clear need for all healthcare professionals working with children to possess these core skills if they are to be effective.

Relationship between reason for placement and medical findings among children in foster care.

To determine the reasons for placement of children in foster care, the prevalence of medical findings during initial placement, and the relationship between reason for placement and medical findings. The association between placement reasons and parental substance abuse also was explored. Population-based analysis of medical records of 749 children examined at the Child Protection Center in San Francisco from October 1, 1991, to December 31, 1992. Health evaluations consisted of a clearance examination of children during entry into foster care and a comprehensive examination 3 weeks later. Reasons for foster placement included abandonment, neglect, no available caretaker, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and failed placement. Nearly 50% of children in our study were < 6 years of age. Neglect (30%), physical abuse (25%), and no available caretaker (24%) were the most frequent placement reasons, followed by abandonment (9%), failed placement (7%), and sexual abuse (5%). Substance abuse was documented in 30% of parents, 51% when the placement reason was neglect. Medical findings were identified in 60% of children. Among 0 to 6-year-olds, 27% had upper respiratory illnesses, 23% had developmental delay, and 21% had skin conditions; for children 7 to 12 years of age, 32% failed vision screening, 12% had dental caries, and 11% had upper respiratory illnesses; and among 13- to 18-year-olds, 31% failed vision screening and 12% had positive tuberculin skin tests. For younger children, skin conditions were associated with neglect, no available care taker, and failed placement, and developmental delay with neglect and abandonment. For adolescents, history of psychiatric illness was associated with neglect and failed placement. Marks of abuse for all age groups were limited to children who had been physically abused. Three or more diagnoses were identified for approximately 20% of children who had been neglected or abandoned or had failed placement, compared with 10% of children who had been either physically or sexually abused. Specific medical findings associated with reasons for placement provide health professionals with additional information to assess more accurately the health care needs of children entering foster care. As important, screening tests revealed high rates of vision problems and exposures to tuberculosis, warranting earlier and more comprehensive screening. Finally, children who have endured variations of neglect or failed placement may have more health problems than anticipated previously.

Combating Foster Care Drift: An Ecosystemic Treatment Model For Neglect Cases

The neglect of children may take many forms, but always represents the diminished capacity of the entire system of which the children are a living part. Child, parent, family, neighborhood, and community variables mutually influence one another. Once children are removed from a home, these same individual, relational, and contextual factors may result in foster placements of indefinite term and goals. Families are not reunited nor are the children legally freed to be placed in permanent homes. Because of the multiplicity of transacting influences there needs to be a stage-wise, systemic approach to remediation. This begins with crisis intervention and life stabilization. Later it includes more traditional family therapy work. However, the marital and family therapist contributes substantially at each stage.

An Innovative School-Based Intergenerational Model to Serve Grandparent Garegivers

Summary There has been an enormous increase in foster care placements, especially with grandparents and other extended family members, since 1985. This is primarily attributable to problems associated with parental drug use, principally of crack cocaine. Drug. related problems that lead to kinship foster placement include prenatal drug exposure, child maltreatment, incarceration, and early death by violence or AIDS or other illness. Grandparents caring for their children's children have a variety of social, mental health, and medical needs because of this stressful role. Following a literature review, a comprehensive social service and medical program developed through the partnership of a large urban teaching hospital, a foundation involved in funding programs for older adults, and an inner city school district is described.

Ethnic Variations in the Two-Year Living Arrangements of Prenatally Drug-Exposed and Comparison Children Placed at Birth

ABSTRACT This study reports on the outcomes of foster home placements of 1,038 African American, Latino, and White infants, prenatally exposed to drugs, removed from their mothers' custody at birth and placed in foster care and the outcomes of a comparison group of 203 infants similarly removed, but not known to have been drug-exposed. Twenty-four months after placement, slightly more than half of the White drug-exposed infants were still under court supervision, and two thirds of the African American and Hispanic infants. A similar situation existed for the comparison group, but the ethnic distributions were reversed. Although African American children predominated in the proportion that were in kinship care, the largest proportion of both Latino and White children were in kinship care. Policy and practice implications are discussed in terms of enhancing placement outcomes for prenatally drug-exposed infants in general and in terms of encouraging placement options that may vary depending upon the ethnicity of the child and the child's kinship ties.

Maintaining Sibling Relationships--Neglected Dimension in Child Care Practice

This article describes some of the findings of a study undertaken to evaluate all foster and adoptive placements in one local authority social work department in Scotland. The num bers, characteristics and care experiences of children in foster and adoptive care were con sidered. The study found that for the majority of children placement in foster care led to separation from siblings. The children were most vulnerable to separation at points of entry and leaving care. Separation from brothers and sisters can have lifelong consequences for the child and his or her siblings, as few of the children were found to have plans which included reunification with their siblings. A fragmented picture emerged concerning sib lings' living situations. Children were found to have siblings living in a variety of situations, both in and outwith the care system. Social workers lacked full information about the family composition where contact with parents was lost or siblings had moved from the area. Chil dren were most likely to be placed with siblings in temporary and relative foster place ments.

Ramifications of foster placement for substance -exposed infants

Ramifications of foster placement for substance -exposed infants

Psychopathology among children placed in family foster care

The literature on psychopathology among children in family foster care published in the last 20 years was reviewed to estimate prevalence and types of psychopathology in this population. A comprehensive computerized database was searched for the period 1974 through 1994, with emphasis on recent literature. Available evidence suggests that the prevalence of psychopathology among children in family foster care is higher than would be expected from normative data, even when this population is compared with children who have backgrounds of similar deprivation. As for the types of psychopathology in this population, the only apparent trend is the predominance of externalizing disorders, such as disruptive behavior disorders. A combination of social, psychological, and biological factors may render children in family foster care highly vulnerable to psychopathology.

Mentors for adolescents in foster care

Significant numbers of adolescents in foster placement plan to live independently following discharge. Mentoring is increasingly being used as a support service to assist older foster youths to make the transition to adult living. A survey of 29 child welfare programs indicate that a variety of mentoring models are in use. The main models are transitional Life Skills Mentors, Cultural-Empowerment Mentors, and Corporate-Business Mentors. Mentoring connects foster wards with a cross-section of community citizens who provide a bridge to higher education and employment, and serve as a resource for transitional problem-solving. Information is needed on the impacts of mentor-mentee matches and efforts to sustain mentor-mentee relationships.

The Impact of Suter v. Artist M. on Foster Care Policy

Child advocacy groups severely criticized pre-1980 foster care policy because it did not prevent separation from, or promote reunification with, family (Carrieri, 1990; Lewis, 1991; Lindsey, 1992a, 1992b; MacDonald, 1992; Simms & Bolden, 1991). Congress therefore enacted major legislation in 1980 that emphasized preservation and unification: Adoption Assistance and Child Welfare Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-272) (hereinafter referred to as Child Welfare Act of 1980, or the act). Critical to changed policy was that to be reimbursed by federal government, states must make to both prevent separation of children from their families and promote reunification with families if separated. Furthermore, act provided for speedy adoption of children who would not return home (Atwell, 1992). The legal issues presented by Child Welfare Act of 1980 that were not clarified were definition of reasonable efforts (Atwell, 1992; Ratterman, Dodson, & Hardin, 1987; Shotton, 1990) and whether private parties could enforce act's provisions (English, 1983). A private right of individuals to enforce a statute means that those who are allegedly affected adversely by a state's noncompliance with a statute may pursue compliance or damages through court action. A key legal axiom is that to sue in courts, one must have legal standing to sue, and legal standing or a private right to sue were not clarified by Child Welfare Act of 1980. To clarify this area, as well as to seek compliance, a class action lawsuit evolved to challenge Illinois Department of Social Services in Chicago for failing to make reasonable efforts (Artist M. v. Johnson, 1989, 1990). Thus, this case presented two key legal issues - definition of reasonable efforts and whether individuals have a private right to force reasonable efforts. After plaintiffs had prevailed in lower federal courts, U.S. Supreme Court ruled that private parties had no legal rights to enforce provisions of act through statute itself or a civil rights lawsuit (Suter v. Artist M., 1992). This article examines Suter and its impact for foster care and adoption policy. Key Provisions of Child Welfare Act of 1980 The passage of Child Welfare Act of 1980 represented first step in permanency planning for foster children (Allen, Golubock, & Olson, 1983). First, it mandated that each state, by submitting a specific plan, commit to making reasonable efforts to prevent removal of children from their families and to return them as soon as reasonably possible. The rationale for this policy initiative was to entice states, with promise of federal monies, to focus on prevention and reunification. Second, beginning October 1, 1983, a judicial determination had to be made that reasonable efforts were used to prevent removal of each child from his or her family before foster placement was made. The rationale for judicial determination was that it would ensure scrutiny of social services provided to each child and would ensure that rights of child and family were respected (Ratterman et al., 1987). To effect judicial determination, states would be forced to amend their statutes (Allen et al., 1983), but many advocates were skeptical whether states would fully implement act (Ratterman et al., 1987). The act mandated that states enact policies in which caseworkers develop case plans for each child that must (1) Be a written document, which is a discrete part of care record, in a format determined by State, which is available to parent(s) or guardian of foster child; and (2) Be developed within a reasonable period, to be established by State, but in no event later than 60 days starting at time State agency assumes responsibility for providing services including placing child; and (3) Include a discussion of how plan is designed to achieve a placement in least restrictive (most family-like) setting available and in close proximity to home of parent(s), consistent with best interest and special needs of child; and (4) After October 1, 1983, include a description of services offered and services provided to prevent removal of child from home and to reunify family. …

Kinship Care and Public Child Welfare: Challenges and Opportunities for Social Work Education

Abstract The growing practice of arranging and financing “foster placement” of abused and neglected children with relatives provides an opportunity to redefine relationships between extended families and the child welfare system. The dilemmas and possibilities presented by kinship care as a child welfare service challenge schools of social work to provide intellectual leadership and to prepare social workers for changing child welfare practice. The author's ideas concerning responses to this challenge focus on key mandates of the Council on Social Work Education's Curriculum Policy Statement and on five principal curriculum areas in social work education.

The educational needs of abused and neglected children: A Review of the Literature

The authors review recent developments in research on the educational needs of abused and neglected children. 1 Beyond the marked academic delays and behavioral problems that are most readily identified, these children show significant delays in the areas of language development, intellectual development, attention and readiness to learn, and socioemotional development. The authors examine the relationship between these educational deficits and various risk and protective factors: history of abuse or neglect, foster placement, child age, and environmental conditions. Findings from this survey of the literature indicate that many of these children are entering the school system with significant cognitive and socioemotional deficits and that greater attention may need to be given to early interventions with preschoolers. The review also concludes that interventions may need to focus more specifically on strengthening these children's socioemotional competencies and on differentiating between the needs of ab...

Psychiatric Morbidity in School-Age Children with Congenital Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection

This study examined the relationship between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and psychiatric morbidity within the context of prenatal drug exposure. Twenty-six HIV-infected, 14 seroreverted, and 20 control (non-HIV-exposed) children were studied; the sample consisted of nonreferred children living in foster placement who had been exposed to maternal drug addiction. Each child received a psychiatric diagnostic evaluation which included completion by the caretaker of a structured diagnostic interview and a behavior checklist on the child as well as a child self-report on a pictorial interview. Age, ethnicity, and IQ were controlled in the analyses because of group differences. There were high rates of behavioral and psychiatric morbidity, especially with respect to disruptive behavior disorders, in this sample of school-age children with HIV infection, but similarly high rates were found in the seroreverted and non-HIV-exposed children. There was some suggestion that the HIV-infected children were experiencing higher levels of subjective distress than either the nonexposed or seroreverted children. The possible relevance of drug exposure to the behavioral outcomes observed here is discussed, as well as the importance of using age-appropriate materials to elicit subjective distress in HIV-infected school-age children. Clinical implications and directions for further research are discussed.

Custody of cocaine-exposed newborns: determinants of discharge decisions.

Maternal cocaine use is a leading grounds for newborn foster placement. This study was initiated to investigate the factors that predict custody status of infants born to substance-abusing women. A retrospective cohort design was used to study the correlates of discharge custody decisions for 99 consecutive infants testing positive for cocaine in a public hospital. The population was 49% Black, 40% Hispanic, and 11% other or unknown. Custody at discharge was to mothers (38%), other family members (25%), or agency foster care (36%). Placement outside the family was greater when mothers had prior child welfare records, in Blacks vs others, with no prenatal care, and when mothers were younger at their first delivery or older at the index birth. Denial of custody to the mother was higher with prior child welfare involvement, in Blacks, and when the mother did not live in her own home. Both models also controlled for parity, child sex, and birthweight. Earlier involvement with child welfare authorities, race, and other factors predict continued separation of mothers and children at newborn discharge, suggesting the need to reexamine current policies and practices.