Sample Size Calculation Formula Research Articles

The Relationship Between Personnel Development and Employee Performance at Zhuoyue Human Resources Service Co. LTD., Hohhot, People’s Republic of China

Background and Aim: The important factors of effective performance are those related to the working environment or organization, such as the environment in the organization, organizational policies and administrative control, command, the nature of the work, the relationship between people at all levels of the organization, compensation, management, budget, etc., and the factors caused by the operator. Thus, this study aims to study the personal development level of Huhohaote Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD employees. To study the work efficiency level of employees in Hohhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China. Study the relationship between employee development and performance in Hohhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD. Materials and Methods: To study and provide suggestions on talent development and employee performance of Hohhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China. The study subjects were 80 employees of Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD., Huhohot City, People's Republic of China. The sample size calculation formula of Yamane Taro was adopted to determine the sample size. The analysis was carried out statistically. Data include frequency distribution, percentage, mean, and standard deviation. Pearson correlation coefficient statistics were used to test the hypothesis. The statistical significance level was 0.05. Results: The research results found that: (1) the Talent development level of employees of Huhhot Zhuoyue Human Resources Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China; Overall, is at the highest level. (2) The work efficiency level of employees of Huhhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China. Overall, this is a high level. (3) Analysis results of the relationship between employee development and employee work efficiency in Huhhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China. In general, the relationship between the two is at a high level. The lowest level equals -0.292. 4) Suggestions for talent development and work performance of employees of Hohhot Zhuoyue Human Resources Service Co., LTD., People's Republic of China are as follows: Increase modern training forms, so that theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge applied to practical work, and organize training consistent with the job responsibilities of employees. Training should be targeted and purposeful. A sufficient budget should be provided for training so that trainees can put their knowledge to good use and apply what they have learned to practical work. Employees should be brought to more successful departments to learn so that they can become role models in the work. Employees should be provided with financial support for further education. Professional trainers should be allowed to explain specific work knowledge to employees. Training should be provided in line with employees' interests, and the company should cultivate employees' sense of service and be recognized in the enterprise. Conclusion: The relationship between human resource development and employee performance is moderate in Hohhot Zhuoyue Human Resource Service Co., LTD.

The implementation of disaster preparedness training integration model based on Public Health Nursing (ILATGANA-PHN) to increase community capacity in natural disaster-prone areas

Indonesia is at high risk of disasters. Therefore, nursing is expected to play a role in disaster risk reductions in communities. This study aimed to implement the Disaster Preparedness Training Integration Model based on Public Health Nursing (ILATGANA-PHN) to increase the Capacity of community in natural disaster-prone areas by assessing the preparedness level of families and communities in disaster-prone areas. The research method was developed in two stages, including the model preparation stage and the model implementation stage. This research was in the 2nd stage, namely the model impelementation stage. The research design, at the model implementation stage, used the one-sample pre-post test without control group design. The respondents were assessed before and after the ILATGANA-PHN training intervention. The sample size was calculated using the sample size calculation formula for the experimental research design without controls. The samples of the study were 78 people. The result of the research described the ILATGANA-PHN training concepts, including the instrument, curriculum, process, module, and maintenance patterns for the training process. The intervention had a significant effect on increasing the independent preparedness of the people in Kendeng Community, Sugih Mukti Village (ƿ 0.000 ≤ 0.005) in terms of four preparedness parameters, namely knowledge and attitudes about disasters (KA), disaster preparedness plans (PE), disaster warnings (WS), and resource mobilization community (RMC). Nurses have the opportunity to take responsibilities for empowering the community capacity in the disaster area through the implementation of ILATGANA-PHN training. The integrated training model for disaster preparedness based on Public Health Nursing (ILATGANA-PHN) is effective in increasing the community capacity, especially in disaster managements, in disaster-prone areas.

Sample size calculation formula in "before-after" intervention studies with qualitative outcomes

Sample size calculation formula in "before-after" intervention studies with qualitative outcomes

Stereoacuity in Varying Degrees of Myopia Before and After Correction

Background: Stereoacuity is measure of three-dimensional perception due to binocular disparity, helps in recognizing depth while perceiving distance, along supporting in recognition of solid objects. Objective: To compare the stereoacuity among varying degrees of uncorrected myopia and after its correction. Secondly, to compare stereoacuity before and after correcting myopia. Study Design: Comparative cross-sectional study. Settings: University Of Lahore Teaching Hospital, Lahore Pakistan. Duration: Study duration was from September 2020 to May 2021. Methods: Sample size was calculated by sample size calculation formula and it was 60. 17 males and 43 were females, aged 18 to 25 years by using non-probability convenient sampling technique. Proforma was used to collect relevant data after taking informed consent. Stereoacuity was measured by using Titmus test before and after correcting varying degrees of myopia. Results: Varying degrees of myopia included 34 patients having low myopia, 21 moderate myopia and 5 patients were high myopic. There was significant difference of stereoacuity in low, moderate, high degrees of myopia (p value =0.00). Mean stereoacuity was 579 ± 1050 seconds of arc. More reduction in stereoacuity was noted in high myopes. Comparing stereoacuity before and after correction depicted significant improvement in stereoacuity (p value =0.019) after correction. Conclusion: Varying degrees of myopia have significant difference in their stereoacuities. So, correction of myopia is very important for preserving of the third grade of binocular single vision.

A study on relationship between protein-energy malnutrition and other morbidities among under-five children in a rural area of Hooghly district, West Bengal

Background: Malnutrition affects physical growth, morbidity, and mortality of the under-five children. It is an underlying factor in many diseases for children and is particularly prevalent in developing countries, where it affects one out of every three preschool-age children. Aims and Objectives: The aims of this study were to find out the relationship between protein-energy malnutrition and other morbidities among under-five children. Materials and Methods: Community-based prospective longitudinal study was conducted in 1 year duration in a rural area of Hooghly District, West Bengal. By adopting sample size calculation formula 4 pq/L2, total 108 children were participated in the study. With the help of pre-design, pre-tested schedule data were collected by interviewing the care giver, by clinical and anthropometry examination of the children and by record review. Results: Among the study population under-weight, stunted, and wasted were 52%, 37%, and 28%, respectively, whereas malnutrition by all types of classification was 61%. Episode of diarrhea, acute respiratory infections (ARI), and worm infestation were 3.50, 4.12, and 1.38/child/year, respectively. Study shows that rate of total morbidities and prevalence of malnutrition was very much interrelated. Conclusion: Prevalence of malnutrition along with diarrhea, ARI, and worm infestations is common ailments among rural population. Special emphasis should be given for provision of health-care services and promotion and protection of optimal infant feeding practices for the improvement of nutritional as well as health status of the children.

Customer Awareness Towards e-Banking Management for Maintaining a Sustainable Environment

Objective: The financial sector and banking support the economy as a whole. The objective of this study is to determine the extent to which consumers are conscious of the benefits of e-banking, the role of demographic factors in determining their satisfaction with e-banking, and the overall satisfaction level with bank services. Theoretical Framework: The study focuses on the financial sector and banking, exploring how private sector banks in India fulfil statutory and regulatory obligations while providing basic banking and para-banking services. Method: The research incorporates both primary and secondary sources and includes three public banks in Kerala, India: Bank of India, Indian Bank, and Union Bank of India. Each bank is considered a separate population, and a sample of 513 bank customers is selected from each region. The Cochran sample size calculation formula is used to determine the appropriate sample size. Statistical analysis, including multivariate analysis of variance and chi-square tests, is conducted using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Results and Conclusion: The findings indicate that bank consumers are satisfied with the e-banking environment and management. Implications of the Research: The research has implications for the banking industry, highlighting the importance of e-banking and demographic factors in customer satisfaction. The findings can inform banks in improving their electronic banking options and overall service quality. Originality/Value: This study contributes to the existing literature by examining consumer satisfaction with e-banking specifically within the context of public banks in Kerala, India.

On asymptotic distributions of several test statistics for familial relatedness in linear mixed models.

In this study, the asymptotic distributions of the likelihood ratio test (LRT), the restricted likelihood ratio test (RLRT), the F and the sequence kernel association test (SKAT) statistics for testing an additive effect of the expected familial relatedness (FR) in a linear mixed model are examined based on an eigenvalue approach. First, the covariance structure for modeling the FR effect in a LMM is presented. Then, the multiplicity of eigenvalues for the log-likelihood and restricted log-likelihood is established under a replicate family setting and extended to a more general replicate family setting (GRFS) as well. After that, the asymptotic null distributions of LRT, RLRT, F and SKAT statistics under GRFS are derived. The asymptotic null distribution of SKAT for testing genetic rare variants is also constructed. In addition, a simple formula for sample size calculation is provided based on the restricted maximum likelihood estimate of the effect size for the expected FR. Finally, a power comparison of these test statistics on hypothesis test of the expected FR effect is made via simulation. The four test statistics are also applied to a data set from the UK Biobank.

Youth Unemployment and Security Challenges in Anambra State, Nigeria

With special emphasis on the Ogbaru local government area of Anambra state, the study examined issues with youth unemployment and security in Nigeria. In particular, the research looked at how youth unemployment in Ogbaru Local Government Area has impacted poverty and how much it has affected social vices. The research used a survey methodology. The study's sample of 400 respondents was chosen from a group of 221,879 using Yamane's 1976 sample size calculation formula. A percentage and frequency table was used to evaluate the data from the structured questionnaire, and multiple regressions were used to verify the hypotheses. According to the study, youth unemployment has led to an increase in social vices like kidnapping, prostitution, robbery, and thuggery in the Ogbaru local government area. Therefore, the study suggests that in order to address the unemployment issue in Anambra State, Nigeria, government at all levels should generate more employment opportunities. To reduce youth unemployment in Nigeria, the government should also set up centers for vocational training and talent development.

Sample size calculation in clinical trial using R.

Since the era of evidence-based medicine, it has become a matter of course to use statistics to create objective evidence in clinical research. As an extension of this, it has become essential in clinical research to calculate the correct sample size to demonstrate a clinically significant difference before starting the study. Also, because sample size calculation methods vary from study design to study design, there is no formula for sample size calculation that applies to all designs. It is very important for us to understand this. In this review, each sample size calculation method suitable for various study designs was introduced using the R program (R Foundation for Statistical Computing). In order for clinical researchers to directly utilize it according to future research, we presented practice codes, output results, and interpretation of results for each situation.

Distance Education Students’ Perception of Online Learning during Covid-19 Era: A Study of Selected Campuses and Learning Centres of Valley View University

The aim of this study is to determine distance education students’ perceptions of online learning during the COVID-19 era. The descriptive design was employed to examine students' views on online learning. The population of the study was 876 students from all the campuses and learning centres of Valley View University (VVU) across the country. The Yamane (1967) sample size calculation formula was used to sample the respondents. The questionnaire was the only data collection instrument used in this study. The researcher sent copies of the questionnaire to the participants via Google forms. The IBM- Statistical Product and Service Solutions (IBM-SPSS) was used for the analysis. The study found that the perceptions of the majority of the students toward online learning were negative. The results revealed that smartphones were ranked first with a value of (RII = 0.659) as the devices used by students during online learning classes. The findings indicated that students found it difficult to access internet services when they were at home, with a value of (RII= 0.644). The study concluded that these findings have the potential to assist University Management in addressing all issues confronting distance learning students. It is suggested that the University's Administration should work with the various telecommunication networks to provide distance learning students with free internet data while they are at home to enable them to fully participate in online learning classes.

Rational Decision and Influence of Facebook in “Get Rich Quick Syndrome” and Ritual Killings among Youth in Nigeria

Well-meaning Nigerian are concerned about the motivations underlying the pursuit of wealth at all costs, which has emerged as a contemporary social crisis. Social media has been connected to this irrational culture of instant wealth among young people. This study examined the influence of Facebook on the get-rich-quick mentality and ritual killings among youth in Nigeria. It used a survey research approach and a sample size of 366 respondents was derived using the sample size calculation and power analysis formula from a population of 202,725 (NPC, 2006). Data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics and linear regression. The results (β= .123, t= 31.118, p<0.05) showed that among other social media platforms, Facebook plays a role in the drive of the get-rich-quick syndrome and ritual killings among youth. The study concluded that Facebook influenced the drive for get-rich-quick syndrome among young people in the city of Ibadan.

Study of Green Human Resource Management and Employees’ Performance in Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria

The study looked at how employees performed at Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria, in relation to green human resource management. The study specifically looked into how employees' performance was impacted by green pay and benefits as well as green communication in Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State. Three Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun Statehosted the study. For the study, a survey research design was used. A sample size of 303 was taken from the 1441 academic staff members of the Federal Tertiary Institutions in Ogun State, Nigeria, who make up the study's population. Due to the fact thatthese institutions are the only Federal Tertiary institutions in the State, a purposive selection technique was utilized to choose the sample. Taro Yamane sample size calculation formula was used to determine the sample size. Using a systematic, customized questionnaire, primary sourcedata for the study were gathered. Component factor analysis and Cronbach Alpha statistics were used to examine the psychometric properties (validity and reliability) of the instrument. Thestudy utilised SPSS software version 26, and developed multiple linear regression to assess the descriptive and inferential statistics of the study's data. According to the study, green pay and benefits have a favorable, noteworthy impact on employees' performance. Based on the findings, the study concluded that there is a strong positive correlation between green human resource management and employee performance

Correlation of the Oral Health Scoring-based Pregnant Oral Self-Care – package (POSC-p) Model with the Motivation to Seek Oral Health Treatment in Pregnant Women

Background: Uncomprehensive oral health evaluation instruments and measurement and the low motivation for seeking dental and oral treatment for pregnant women; all require comprehensive measurement instruments that will increase the motivation for seeking oral health treatment for pregnant women. POSC-p model was developed for the Oral Health Scoring (OHS) to assess pregnant women's perceived needs, clinical examination, and salivary state. Objectives: The research objective was to analyse the correlation between the POSC-p model with the motivation for seeking oral health care in pregnant women. Methods: Cross-sectional research was conducted by a non-probability sampling technique using the consecutive sampling method. The sample size was determined based on the correlation analysis sample size calculation formula. The study variables were POSC-p model built with three dimensions; POSC-p score section 1 was felt needs, POSC-p score section 2 was normative needs, and POSC-p score section 3 was saliva condition. In addition, motivation to seek treatment with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation dimensions. All data were analysed using the Spearman rank correlation test. Results: A significant correlation was found between the POSC-p model with intrinsic and a combination of treatment-seeking motivation (p=0.026); a combined score of the POSC-p model with intrinsic (p=0.008) and a combination of treatment-seeking motivation (p=0.032). Conclusion: There is a correlation between the POSC-p with motivation for seeking oral health treatment in pregnant women.

Effectiveness of Complementary Food Based on Foodrecipe Locally Produced in Malnutrition Prevention of Child 6–23, Katanga DRC: Randomized Controlled Trial of MASO31 Recipe

Abstract Objectives This study aims to assess the effectiveness of the local additional food-recipe MASO 31 to increase weight gain (or z-score WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) in preventing malnutrition. The Null Hypothesis: “MASO31” recipe is not effective in preventing malnutrition or the z-score index (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) gain averages in the two groups (intervention and control groups) are equal. The alternative Hypothesis: the “MASO31” recipe is effective in preventing malnutrition or the z-score index (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) gain average is increased in the intervention children group than in the comparison children group. Methods In Kapolowe health zone, double-blind RCT is undertaken to assess the effectiveness of the MASO31 recipe to increase z-score (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) in preventing malnutrition. P-S Power and sample size calculation software version 3.1.2. and the sample size calculation formula n = 2(Zα+Z[1-β])2 × SD2/d2 were used to obtain the sample size, where α = 0.01, Zα = 2.58, β = 0.10, Z(1-β) = 1.28; SD = 1z-score (within each subject group), d(effect size) = 0.55 z-score. So, n = 2(2.58 + 1.28)2 × (1)2/(0.55)2 = 99. Sample size with attrition rate (10%) = NR = n/(1-R) = 99/(1–0,90) = 110 intervention and 110 control children groups 12–20 months old. A total of 220 study children simply randomized are receiving daily 200g of MASO31 or MASO30 porridge-based. Standardized anthropometric equipment, trained investigators, and SPSS 23 are used before and will be used after implementation. A paired t-test will compare matched z-score (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) averages within each children group. Two-sample t-test will compare the real difference of the difference of z-score (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) gain averages in intervention and comparison children groups to reject the null hypothesis of the equality of the z-score (WHZ, WAZ, HAZ) gain averages in the two groups. Results The results are not yet available because it is a protocol whose study is being implemented. Conclusions Waiting for the end of the implementation study, we hope that this study will provide evidence about the effectiveness of local complementary food-recipe in DR Congo and serve the Health Ministry to make nutrition policy. Funding Sources Grant application to Nestle Foundation

Epidemics and Vaccination Dilemma in Complex Networks: A Case Study of Kosefe and Shomolu Local Government Area Lagos Nigeria

Vaccination is undoubtedly one of the foremost important preventive measures of modern times; epidemics are feared as one of the most damaging phenomena in human societies. Aim: The thesis unveiled how the interplay between the probability of infection, vaccine effectiveness, and cost gives rise to non–linear responses in vaccine uptake. The study design was a cross-sectional descriptive study that used pretested closed-ended questionnaire that was distributed to the respondents. The sample size of 375 was adopted, which was calculated from the target population using the Cochrane formula for sample size calculation. Parents/guardians that strongly believe politicians should be role models that encourage vaccination were 61.87%, while 50.67% of mothers/caregivers were not sure if there is still a link between MMR vaccination and autism. The majority of parents/guardians (55.47% + 29.87%) strongly agree plus agree that media reports on vaccination programmes encourage them to vaccinate their children. 32.80% strongly agree, and 22.40% agree that the media exaggerates reports about disease outbreaks. Conclusion: The level of education plays an important role in the level of knowledge and attitude towards epidemics and vaccination. Income and Cost of vaccines affect vaccination uptake because of the present economic situation in Nigeria. Media plays a key role in vaccination campaigns, awareness, and intervention and should be promoted more to achieve the goal of ensuring all children are vaccinated properly. Doctors and Public Health Nurses have a major role to play in terms of influencing parents/guardian’s vaccination uptake.

Assessment of Maternal Satisfaction with the Quality of Antenatal Care Rendered by Midwives at A Tertiay Health Institution in the Southeast Nigeria

In this era of economic challenges health care consumers’ desire quality of care that comes with value and satisfaction. This cross-sectional descriptive study assessed maternal satisfaction with the quality of antenatal care rendered by midwives at a tertiary health institution in the Southeast Nigeria. Three objectives guided the researchers in achieving the purpose of the study. Sample of 171 respondents was drawn from a population of 301 pregnant women using Taro Yameni formula for sample size calculation. Validated investigators’ structured questionnaire with reliability index of 0.70 was used for data collection. Data generated from the study were analyzed through descriptive statistics using SPSS Version 21 IBM. Findings from the study revealed that the pregnant women attending Antenatal clinic at the state tertiary health institution are satisfied with the quality of physical and psychological care rendered by the midwives in the institution. Outstanding in their satisfaction were evidenced in their contentment with blood pressure monitoring (43.4%), weight monitoring (40.9%), directives on family planning (47.4%), reassurance by midwives (40.9%), and confidentiality of privileged information (42.7%). They saw the spacious nature of the ANC care arena as a satisfier too. Greater number of the women (77.8%) believes that they derived their satisfaction of care from the availability of essential drugs and necessary equipment. Finally in order to improve satisfaction with antenatal care, organizational aspects of antenatal care such as reducing waiting times and increasing accessibility to drugs and equipments need to be improved. The researchers recommended that the hospital management should recruit more midwives to reduce the work load on those working at the ANC unit and also provide comfortable environment for the pregnant women attending the ANC.

School Co-curricular Activities in Promotion of Peace Education in Public Day Secondary Schools in West Pokot County, Kenya

Peace education is about empowering and equipping students with knowledge, skills and attitudes in relation to positive social change and to help them find new solutions to challenges. West Pokot County in Kenya is a highly volatile region, characterized by regular conflict between its inhabitants and communities in neighbouring Baringo, Elgeyo Marakwet, Turkana counties and northern Uganda region. The purpose of this study was to investigate how school co-curricular activities affect provision of peace education in public secondary schools in West Pokot County, Kenya. The study was guided by the following objective: to identify school co-curricular activities that accelerate attainment of peace education in public secondary schools in West Pokot county. Literature review indicates that when education is equitably available, of good quality, relevant and conflict sensitive, it can help promote peace and provide safe environments. The study adopted a pragmatist research paradigm and a descriptive survey research design. A sample size of 30% of principals and teachers constituted 24 and 198 respectively from a total population of 81 principals and 661 teachers in the County. Based on Yamane formula for sample size calculation, 385 students were sampled from a total of 10,035 students in West Pokot County. The schools were selected using stratified random sampling technique while purposive sampling was used to select the principals who participated in the study. Simple random sampling was used to select students and teachers. Data was collected using questionnaires for teachers’ respondents, interviews for principals and focus group discussions, for student respondents. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and chi square test while qualitative data was analyzed thematically based on the emerging themes. The study established that; school co-curricular activities promoted peace It is recommended that co-curricular activities with the theme of ....

Prevalence of anemia and associated factors among adult diabetic patients attending Bale zone hospitals, South-East Ethiopia.

BackgroundAnemia found in diabetes patients is often unrecognized like many other chronic diseases. The occurrence of anemia is also an additional burden to the micro vascular complications of patients with diabetes. In the selected study structure no published data were found on the prevalence of anemia and associated factors in diabetic patients. Hence, the findings of this study are very fruitful as an input for further studies and after the repetition of similar studies in different frameworks. It is helpful as input for the development of guidelines at diabetes clinics to request the laboratory assessment of hemoglobin as a routine activity.ObjectiveThis study aimed to assess the prevalence of anemia and its associated factors among diabetic patients who attended Bale zone hospitals.MethodsA cross-sectional study design was conducted from September 2020–to January 2021 GC among adult diabetic patients who had follow-up at Bale zone hospitals. A total of 238 study participants were determined by single population proportion sample size calculation formula taking prevalence of anemia among adult diabetic patients 19.0%. Systematic random sampling technique was used to select the study participants. Information on demographic and associated factors of anemia in diabetic patients was collected using an interviewer-administered questionnaire. Blood sample collection was performed under aseptic conditions by a licensed medical laboratory professional. Data were entered into EpiData version 3.1, cleaned and exported to statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS) version 25 software tools. Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with anemia in diabetic patients. P-value less than 0.05 and 95% CI were considered as statistically significant. The odds ratios were reported to indicate the strength of associations. Frequencies, percentages, charts and tables were used to summarize the characteristics of study participants.ResultsIn this study anemia among adult diabetic patients is 18.1% (95% CI (13.2, 23.0%). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that the sex of the study participants and the type of diabetes mellitus were found to be statistically significant to associate with anemia. The odds of having anemia among females are nearly three times higher when compared with males (AOR 2.78, 95% CI 1.40–5.52). In addition, the odds of having anemia among adult diabetic patients who had type II diabetes mellitus (AOR 2.18, 95%CI 1.04–4.54) were 2.18 times higher than those who had type I diabetes mellitus patients.ConclusionNearly one out of five adult diabetic patients had anemia. Sex of the patients and the type of diabetes are associated with anemia among adult diabetic patients.

Academic Performance of Upgraded Extra-County Schools to National Status in Western Kenya Counties

The success of students in secondary schools’ systems is measured by their performance at the end of course examinations. In Kenya, the end of secondary school level of education examination is the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education. This paper looks at the performance of upgraded extra county schools to national status in western Kenya. The research adopted a descriptive research design; the target population were 295 teachers and eight school principals in upgraded Extra County Schools to the national level. Sample size calculation formula by role was used to get 170 teachers who were selected through a simple random sampling method, whereas all eight Principals were selected using purposive sampling. Data for this investigation were collected through teacher questionnaire, interview schedule for Principal and document analysis guide for secondary data. Analysis of data was done using frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviation and one sample statistics. Results showed that there was an -18.7% change in KCSE performance from the year 2013 to 2018. Hence the upgrading of national schools in western Kenyan resulted in to drop in performance in all the upgraded schools under study. The study recommends that TSC should deploy more teachers in these schools, government to increase its support towards the upgrading of infrastructure in the upgraded schools in the region and the board of management to be proactive in planning for quality education provision in their schools.

Sample sizes for non-inferiority studies based on the difference between two proportions: a unified approach for difference, ratio and odds ratio models


 
 Background: It is never easy to make sample size calculation for two-arm, non-inferiority studies with a primary proportion outcome not only because the different parameterisations involved in the difference, ratio, and odds ratio models lead to different non-inferiority margins and different sample size results, but also because of the different efficiency of the respective sample size formulae.
 Methods: According to a formal statistical approach, we showed how to express the non-inferiority margins of the three models by keeping the probability (success or failure) of the standard treatment fixed (considered as “known” in the planning phase of a trail), and equal under the null and alternative hypotheses as the statistical basis for sample size calculation.
 Results: We have obtained the sample size formulae and their respective power formulae for the three considered models both for success and failure probabilities. A sample size table for non-inferiority success studies is reported for illustrative purposes. In addition, we have compared the sample sizes from the three models by means of graphic and theoretical approaches and we have shown their asymptotic relationships. Furthermore, we have obtained the formulae for switching among the three considered models. Finally, we have correct some previously published formulae for sample size calculations.
 Conclusion: The clearly separate approach to the probabilities of success and failure of the three considered models shown in this paper makes it possible to switch among them consistently and equivalently and to choose the probability formulation for the most parsimonious model.