Forms Of Prestige Research Articles

Reconstructing the geological provenance and long-distance movement of rectangular, fishtail, and croisette copper ingots in Iron Age Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The southern third of Africa is unusually rich in copper ore deposits. These were exploited by precolonial populations to manufacture wound-wire bangles, other forms of jewelry, and large copper ingots that were used as stores of copper or as forms of prestige. Rectangular, fishtail, and croisette ingots dating between the 5th and 20th centuries CE have been found in many locations in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Zambia, and Zimbabwe, with isolated finds in Malawi and Mozambique. Molds for casting these ingots have been found mostly in the Central African Copperbelt, but also around the Magondi Belt copper deposits in northern Zimbabwe. For years, scholars have debated whether these ingots were exclusively made in the Copperbelt or if the molds found in Zimbabwe indicate that local copies were produced from Magondi Belt copper ore (Garlake 1970; Bisson 1976). Before the recent application of lead isotopic and chemical methods to provenance copper in central and southern Africa, there was no way to discern between these hypotheses. Rademakers et al. (2019) and Stephens et al. (2020) showed that copper artifacts from southern DRC (mostly from Upemba) and from northwestern Botswana (Tsodilo Hills) match the lead isotope ratios of ores from the Copperbelt. Building upon these previous studies, we present here the first results from a copper provenance project across the southern third of Africa, from the Copperbelt to northern South Africa. We apply lead isotopic analysis (LIA) and chemical analyses to establish the provenance of 29 croisette ingots recovered in Zimbabwe, 2 fishtail and 1 rectangular ingot recovered from sites in Zambia, and an "X" shaped ingot smelted in an experiment in Zambia in the 1970's. Our chemistry and lead isotopic results indicate that 16 of these objects were smelted with copper from the Copperbelt, 16 objects source more specifically to the Kipushi deposit within this geological district, and only one HXR ingot sources to the Magondi Belt in Zimbabwe. Taken together, we clearly illustrate that croisette ingots were traveling significant distances to reach their eventual sites of deposition, and that there was also local production of these objects in Zimbabwe.

Subject relativewhoin Ontario, Canada: Change from above in a transplanted ecology

AbstractWhoas a restrictive relativizer in English is an old change from above. In urban dialects, it still acts as a prestige form, whereas it is infrequent or negligible in rural British and American varieties. We compare earlier findings from Toronto, the largest city in the province of Ontario (D’Arcy & Tagliamonte, 2010), with a range of communities from the Ontario Dialects Project (Tagliamonte, 2003–present). While none of the rural locations has as muchwhoas Toronto, there is a substantial range. Regions along the major highways to the north and east of the city have morewho, while the smaller towns in less accessible locations have less, consistent with a Cascade Model effect (Labov, 2003). Nonetheless,whoshows evidence of diffusion, increasing in apparent time in recent decades. We suggest that this reflects overt pressure from above, consistent with the enduring role that prestige plays in English relativizer variation.

The Sound of Navajo Country: Music, Language, and Diné Belonging

The Sound of Navajo Country: Music, Language, and Diné Belonging

“It’s always nice to head for home”: Music-Making, Sense of Place, and Corkonian Identity in the Rory Gallagher Irish Tour ’74 Documentary

This paper builds upon the work of Hogan (2016, 2021) by casting a historical lens on the importance of emotional connectivity to place in Cork through a case study of the city’s most famous musician: the blues/rock guitarist Rory Gallagher. Specifically, it investigates how sense of place and Corkonian values are narratively produced and depicted in the Irish Tour ’74 documentary. It argues that the documentary portrays County Cork as a close-knit place with a deep sense of community and Gallagher as the physical representation of these values. Analysis of specific scenes also highlights the significance of localist expressions of identity and localised forms of prestige for Gallagher, as well as the way in which his songs can be renarrativised to create new meanings that either accentuate his yearning for home or promote a form of hybridised parochialism that centres around Belfast as his 'second home'. AcknowledgementsI am extremely grateful to Rory’s brother Dónal Gallagher and nephew Daniel Gallagher for their permission to use stills from the Irish Tour ’74 documentary in this paper.

Die große Mischkalkulation: Institutions, Social Import, and Market Forces in the German Literary Field ed. by William Collins Donahue and Martin Kagel

Reviewed by: Die große Mischkalkulation: Institutions, Social Import, and Market Forces in the German Literary Field ed. by William Collins Donahue and Martin Kagel Ari Linden Die große Mischkalkulation: Institutions, Social Import, and Market Forces in the German Literary Field. Edited by William Collins Donahue and Martin Kagel. Paderborn: Brill Fink, 2021. Pp. x + 251 pages. Paper $57.00. ISBN 978-3770565696. In 1913, Kurt Wolff of the newly established Kurt Wolff Verlag offered something of a confession to Karl Kraus, with whom he would soon form a professional relationship: "I for my part consider a publisher to be . . . a kind of seismographer, whose task is to keep an accurate record of earthquakes. I try to take note of what the times bring forth in the way of expression and, if it seems worthwhile in any way, place it before the public" (Alexander Wolff, "How Kurt Wolff Transformed Pantheon into a 20th-Century Publishing Powerhouse"). While it may be rarer today to encounter this kind of sentiment among the gatekeepers of German literature, Wolff's statement nonetheless points to the fundamental role that the publisher—and the literature enterprise as a whole—plays in placing literature "before the public." In the terser and less self-aggrandizing words of one of the contributors to this illuminating new volume: "Ohne Betrieb keine Literatur" (130). And yet essential as the Literaturbetrieb is to literature (its institutions and agencies, not just the "business" thereof), many of us critics ignore this dimension in our scholarship and do so at our own peril. Die große Mischkalkulation, an edited volume containing contributions by academics, authors, translators, filmmakers, dramaturges, and librarians, largely aims to correct this oversight by providing numerous perspectives on the current state of the "German literary field." In so doing, it contributes significantly to our understanding of what this field entails in its entirety, attending, as the editors write, to the "material conditions that underlie the production, dissemination, and consumption of literature" (3). In Part 1, Geoffrey Baker convincingly argues for the necessity of a central, physical space (Berlin) despite our increasingly virtual world, while Marike Janzen carefully articulates how the "Mischkalkulation"—a central motif of the volume, as indicated by its title—of small publishers involves the process of weighing short-term financial loss against potential long-term gain in the form of prestige, and how such a calculus [End Page 401] is to be situated within Germany's longer history of Bildung. Heidi Madden makes a case for onsite research stays at libraries and archives in Germany, which, along with book fairs, provide invaluable resources for accessing both older and contemporary German-language literature. Claire A. Ross, Sarah Traylor, Necia Chronister, and Ulrike Wiethaus champion the yet untapped potential for literary studies to play a more active role in the Literaturbetrieb, given that academics are often the ones reviewing, assigning, and promoting the work of authors. Finally, David Gramling's interview with the "Black Dominican queer femme feminist" (8) author and activist SchwarzRund provides unique insights into multilingualism in German publishing, minorities in German academia, and intersectionality in the German literary and publishing world. Part 2 addresses the fate of the book, the enterprise of literature in the digital age, and the challenging process of filming literature. While Matthias Pabsch argues that the physical book has in no way become a thing of the past, Steffen Richter highlights many of the complexities that have arisen in virtue of digitalization, including the way literary criticism has been "decentralized" (124). Volker Schlöndorff's recollection of his first encounter with German literature—namely, Günter Grass—has implications that extend beyond his autobiography. Part 3 addresses the evolving relationship between literature and literary criticism over the last few decades. Victoria Bläser and Rolf Parr discuss televised literary criticism as a kind of middle-ground between pure entertainment and the academic reception of literature; Julian Preece suggests that the longstanding rivalry between Günter Grass and Marcel Reich-Ranicki was both singular as well as revealing in terms of the general insight it offers into the ambivalent relationship between author and critic; and Thomas Scholz's interview with then literature editor of...

The Value of Prestige on the Father Figure in the Family Acehnese people

In Acehnese society itself, there is a system of prestige given to the head of the family at home, namely the father figure. The form of prestige is in the form of appreciation and privilege of treatment to the father. This study aims to explore the socio-cultural values embedded in Acehnese society, namely the value of prestige which is closely related to the patrilineal system. Although it is often not realized, the existence of these values is real. By using a qualitative approach in the form of a literature review study, namely a literature study that uses references from other research journals, theses, theses, books related to the prestige value of the father figure in the family. This study also relates the focus of the study to a feminist view that basically the main essence desired by women is the creation of harmony, dignity, and freedom in managing life, both from within and from outside the home. Meanwhile, in Aceh, the privileged access or advantages that women get is always related to marital status. They will get their rights if they get married, and have children. However, it is still not comparable to that obtained by the adam in the family. In conclusion, the prestige value is still embedded in the Acehnese family, but the practice is no longer the same as before

Finding Difference in Emotional Communities: New Feminisms of Women's Lives in the Nineteenth Centuryceand Sixth Millenniumbce

This paper explores notions of relationality and emotional communities to re-tell accounts of women's lives in the nineteenth centuryceand second half of the sixth millenniumbce, within the framework of posthumanist feminism. We argue that in both of these contexts women's work, spaces and material cultures have been devalued in comparison with those categorized as masculine. To counter androcentric accounts, we consider how different tasks and forms of material culture can create ‘emotional communities’ among groups, forming shared participation in social worlds. Our focus is first the mourning cultures of the Victorian period in the UK, where we argue objects of emotion may have operated to create shared spaces outside of the home, breaking down oppositions of domestic and private. Second, we turn to the ways in which tasks considered female have been downplayed in the Neolithic of central Europe, exploring the assemblages of bodies, grinding stones and hide working to show how emotional currents may have flowed through these materials, creating experiences of aging and different forms of prestige. In conclusion, we argue that the concept of emotional communities provides a useful methodology to answer the challenge set by posthumanist feminism of thinking difference as positive.

Samuel Khachikian and the Crime Thriller in Iran

Abstract Samuel Khachikian was the most successful director of crime films in Iran during the genre’s heyday in the late 1950s and early 60s. Debates among critics about his films highlight how the crime film was able to thrive as a prestige form in the years before boundaries had solidified between commercial films and intellectual films made in Iran. Film noir, from its earliest transatlantic imaginings to its recent global circuits, has consistently engaged with an imagined elsewhere through its modernist style. In many parts of the world, it allowed a kind of performance of exuberant cinephilia while also attracting attention about its originality. In Tehran, as elsewhere, the genre accompanies the global circulation of modern design with strong, but mixed, feelings.

Multilingualism and the heteroglossia of ideologies in Lower Fungom (Cameroon)

Located at the northwestern edge of the Cameroonian Grassfields, Lower Fungom is a rural, linguistically highly diverse region (pop. ca. 12,000) where individual multilingualism in three local languages plus Cameroonian Pidgin English (henceforth CPE) is the norm, with a minority also speaking Cameroonian English. This article focuses on the different types of identity that can be projected via the use of English, CPE, and the local languages. Data come from language documentation projects and include self-reports, ethnographic observations, and analysis of language use. Such a diverse dataset allows us to uncover and discuss a number of aspects of the local language ideologies. Key here is the recognition that only exoglossic languages allow the representation of different identities qua membership in stereotypical categories – such as the case of English, which calls up stereotypes connected with authority and prestige – whereas the use of local languages is associated with village affiliation and, hence, relational rather than categorical identities. This ideological layer is not regimented by any form of prestige- or domain-based compartmentalization and, therefore, can hardly be captured by classical theories such as Fishman’s (1967) extended diglossia theory, whose limits in doing research on African rural settings are highlighted. Also, inspired by Jenks and Lee (2016), this article suggests the existence of a heteroglossia of ideologies of personal identity (relational vs. categorical) most likely determined by the relatively recent entry of English in the local language ecology.

Knowledge Transfers: Esteem and the Willingness to Teach and Learn

Useful knowledge stored in members' collective minds is an important advantage to organisations; understanding what motivates its transfer is thus important. I consider the role of esteem in the knowledge transferring activities of teaching and learning in a model motivated by Akerlof (2015). In teaching, there is a trade-off: conferred esteem in the form of prestige and respect can be obtained if one is able to influence others to value one's expertise, but doing so reduces one's relative achievement, decreasing (self) esteem and hurting pride. Comparative statics show that this causes teaching to be non-monotonic in students' learning potential and/or teachers' ability. In learning, we examine the effects of social pressure on learning given an option to escape. Social pressure can be used to motivate individuals to put in effort and possibly value a prevalent activity, but too much social pressure causes those with relatively lower potential achievement to exhibit escapism due to increasingly negative esteem/pride. Implications of the models are discussed.

A Consonant Shift in Kuwaitis’ Speech: Challenging the Bedouin Vs Sedentary hypothesis The case of [ʧ

In light of sociolinguist phonological change, the following study investigates the shift of [ʧ] to [k] sound in the speech of Kuwaitis and argues against the Bedouin/ Sedentary distinction. The main hypothesis is twofold: first the shift seems to be driven not by the differences between the sedentary and Bedouin varieties, but by the widespread of the English language as a prestige form and by the recent change of Kuwaitis’ lifestyle; second, the shift is not totally in the direction of [k], but rather in the direction of a lexical replacement by either English loanwords, classical Arabic, or other Arab dialects. To test this hypothesis, 130 informants were informally interviewed. 503 tokens were collected and were examined across gender, age, level of education. Their speech was phonetically transcribed and accordingly was quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed. Results indicate that the [ʧ] variant is undergoing change and that the social parameters and the significant social changes, that Kuwait has undergone recently, have triggered this linguistic shift.

International prestige through ‘sporting success’: an evaluation of the evidence

A central argument for public funding of elite sport is the claim that success at the Olympic Games or world championships leads to increasing international prestige for cities and states. While this assumption seems plausible in general, it clearly lacks specification. Given this, we first discuss here several theoretical approaches in order to unpack which forms of prestige can be sought by states in which kind of sports and events. Second, we summarize the (rather limited) state of empirical research on the topic. Third, secondary data, offering possible indicators for sport-induced changes in international prestige, are presented and discussed. The resulting picture reveals that the formula ‘the more success, the more prestige’ is too simple. The paper concludes by suggesting methodological approaches towards a more systematic analysis of states’ use of sport to acquire international prestige.

“Gay capital” in gay student friendship networks

This article draws on qualitative interviews with 40 gay male undergraduates at four universities across England to explore the dynamics of participants’ friendship networks in the context of decreased homophobia. Describing their schools and universities as gay-friendly spaces, most participants developed close friendships with both straight and sexual minority peers in spontaneous ways, away from institutional venues such as lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender student societies. Building on Bourdieu’s conceptualization of the symbolic economy of class, I introduce a new concept to understand how having a visible gay identity can act as a form of privilege in inclusive, post-gay social fields: gay capital. Through shared knowledge of gay cultures, belonging to gay social networks, and having one’s gay identity recognized as a form of prestige, gay capital supplements cultural, social, and symbolic forms of capital. These findings trouble traditional generalizations of gay youth as victimized due to their sexual minority status. However, finding that participants’ experiences differed across the four research settings, this article also develops an intersectional analysis by highlighting that access to gay capital is limited by other forms of class, gender, and sexual hierarchy.

Doping and drug testing: Anti-doping work must be transparent and adhere to good scientific practices to ensure public trust.

Sport plays an important role in society: It is a major social and economic activity, it contributes to public health, it is entertainment, and achievements in amateur and professional sports are sources of motivation and pride. In popular sports, the rewards in the form of prestige, fame and revenues can be significant. Some athletes are therefore tempted to cheat and use performance‐enhancing drugs, even when it may seriously threaten their health. Yet, doping is not just a health issue; it is unfair to other athletes and in complete opposition to the idea of competitive sports that the best shall win in a fair contest. > …doping is not just a health issue; it is unfair to other athletes and in complete opposition to the idea of competitive sports that the best shall win in a fair contest. Doping in sport is illegal. Most governments have signed a UN convention against doping, but some are rather lenient or negligent in their attitude. For many countries, achievements in sport are closely tied to national pride, and the temptation to use prohibited methods can therefore be stronger than respect for the rules or concerns about the health of athletes. Anti‐doping regulations based on strong scientific and legal principles can therefore help to prevent abuse and ensure fair contests for athletes in all disciplines. The World Anti‐Doping Agency (WADA) regulates the use of performance‐enhancing substances through rules set down in its code, which is signed by most countries. However, it remains a problem that violators can use illegal drugs, yet avoid being caught for doping, and therefore, athletes can sometimes win by unfair means. At the same time, it is important that the net to catch violators is not too fine—that attempts to increase the sensitivity of the test methods do not undermine specificity—so that …

Translation, Littérisation, and the Nobel Prize for Literature

This work is a cultural economics study of the problem of translation production and assessment in and leading up to the literary Nobel Prize deliberations. I argue that the constraints of assessing an unevenly and partially translated body of literary works, many of them from less common languages, present an unbreachable expertise gap. Translation as a sacralization, or consecration in Casanova’s (2004) term, of a writer’s work is considered in the context of the award. Ultimately the prize is shown to depend upon translations carried out in dissimilar circumstances for each candidate. The award of the Nobel is part of the founder’s call for works to be more widely circulated, not to reward fame; thus a Nobel is more an invitation to translate than a recognition of an author in translation, although evidence suggests that the post-Nobel translational impact may vary by writer and over time. This study sheds light on the degree to which the Prize is an authority-mediated phenomenon, and while critiquing the quixotic task of judging disparate forms and amounts of cultural capital side by side, and never from a point of neutrality, it also attempts to show how translation shapes this symbolic form of prestige in the struggle for existence. I posit that alternative prizes and prize-awarding in general as fraught with similar cross-language challenges. Possibilities for future research, qualitative analysis of the Nobel and translation demand, among other consequences, are briefly sketched.

Politics as Business: An Analysis of the Political Parties in Contemporary India

This article is an attempt to analyze the nature of transformation in the Indian political parties and to rethink their role in the contemporary times. That parties are motivated to ‘serve’ the people and inspired to ‘win’ elections is well documented. However, there are counter-examples of parties serving people at a price or being equally powerful even while losing elections. Forming or sustaining a party seems to be a survival strategy for political activists. Politics has become a business-like preoccupation. The recent climate of competition has led to the emergence of sizable rent-seeking professional leaders. They calculate the returns on the political and economic investments made, which is not confined to a zero-sum game of winning elections. There are pay-offs even when one loses an election. Being in politics, a party activist has a distinct identity that could reap dividends in the form of prestige, status and accessibility. These could be converted to pecuniary benefits. Parties look like business firms in a political market.

Introduction: Queer Early Modernity Beyond the Antinormative

IntroductionQueer Early Modernity Beyond the Antinormative Sarah Nicolazzo In our recent special issue on “Desiring History and Historicizing Desire” (JEMCS 16.2), editors Ari Friedlander, Will Stockton, and Melissa Sanchez reflected on how recent debates about temporality and historicism in early modern sexuality studies can lend the field vitality and continued methodological self-reflexivity (1–20).1 Indeed, we did not plan this issue of JEMCS to be devoted to any specific subject matter, but found that we had accepted a cluster of essays that all offered queer approaches to early modern material, prompting us to place them into more explicit conversation with each other. As the accidental nature of this special issue testifies, interest in early modern sexuality continues to inspire work across a growing variety of archives, methodologies, and fields. “Desiring History and Historicizing Desire” asked where the field might go next in light of these debates about the relative academic status of “theory” and “history,” and how these name not just methods, but academic-institutional affiliations, gendered forms of prestige, and genres of scholarly writing. In her formal observations about the rhetoric of what she (in response to Madhavi Menon) calls “unhistoricism,” Valerie Traub argues that what is often fought out as a methodological difference is also very much about genre and prestige (Thinking Sex 78–81). The stakes of this debate, for many, have to do with the uneven transferability of work marked as “historical” and work marked as “theoretical”; as Melissa Sanchez asks, “how did the study of earlier literature become understood primarily as ‘literary criticism’ and that of nineteenth- and twentieth-century literature become classified as ‘theory’?” (128). If “Desiring History and Historicizing Desire” asked where the field of early modern sexuality studies might go next in light of these unanswered questions, [End Page 1] then the articles in this issue offer a snapshot of current work on queer early modernity. Thus, I want to introduce the articles that follow as contributions to contemporary problems in queer studies that are commonly disseminated under the name of “theory,” and to make a case for how these articles think through “theoretical” problems via early modern archives. I want to make this case because I think Traub and Sanchez are right about how choice of archive works as an implicit generic marker for scholarly readers, and how reference to non-contemporary primary source material can exclude work from being read as part of contemporary theoretical and methodological conversations, even when it very much contributes to these conversations. As Friedlander argues, “any contemporary discussion of politics—from gay marriage to trans* rights—and academia—from queer tactility to the organization of the modern university—would benefit from an early modern perspective” (12). In particular, the essays gathered in this issue reveal what early modern archives can contribute to an important conversation in queer studies today: the reevaluation of antinormativity as the presumed foundational commitment of queer study and politics. In their introduction to a recent special issue of differences, Robyn Wiegman and Elizabeth Wilson ask: “What might queer theory do if its allegiance to antinormativity was rendered less secure?” (1). Antinormativity, they argue, has long formed a largely unquestioned force of rhetorical and political coherence for a field grounded in anti-identitarian critique and never completely or uncomplicatedly tethered to gay or lesbian identities or political movements. Such commitment to the antinormative, they argue, has proven amenable to scholars seeking political and rhetorical strategies for doing queer scholarship in an era of (uneven) queer assimilation, normativity, and incorporation into citizenship: Under this formulation, U.S. national queer politics might be standing in patriotic assent to the military or heading to the altar to tie the knot with the state, but queer studies can still be critically queer by rallying against liberal political norms; prioritizing nonnormative sexual practices, identities, and desires; and exposing the exclusions and compromises of the field’s institutionalized logics, including its seeming reliance on traditional disciplinary practices and familiar race and gender hierarchies. (7) [End Page 2] Indeed, as they argue here, the commitment to queer as capaciously “antinormative” has contributed vitally to the field (particularly queer of color critique, disability studies, and trans...

The Prestige of the Law: Revisiting Obscenity Law and Judge Woolsey’s Ulysses Decision

Judge John Woolsey’s famous 1933 U.S. District Court decision declared Ulysses not obscene, which legalized the novel’s importation into the United States and paved the way for Random House’s 1934 edition. Important as “U.S. v. One Book Called ‘Ulysses’” was, none of the principles Woolsey articulated were new. A deeper understanding of Woolsey’s decision and its importance must restore its larger contexts, and this essay considers the decision’s unusual features—its sparse use of a rich case history, its rhetorical flourishes, its outsize stature—through a detailed consideration of Judge Woolsey himself. Several unexamined documents in archives and in private hands help to clarify our heretofore hazy picture of Woolsey, and a clearer image suggests that his decision relies not upon the standard authority of case law but upon the self-evident assertion of cultural value, or what we might call prestige. What makes Judge Woolsey’s literary bent both compelling and “dangerous” (as Judge Learned Hand described it) is that it highlights how legal authority, particularly regarding obscenity, often amounts to a form of prestige.

REPRESENTANTES DO POVO – UMA MODERNA TEORIA DA REPRESENTAÇÃO NAS VINDICIAE CONTRA TYRANNOS

De forma impressionante, já no século XVI, tão marcado pelo aumento (alguns diriam ‘surgimento’) do absolutismo na Europa, o autor das Vindiciae procura corajosamente mostrar que em todos os reinos bem ordenados, tanto nos antigos como nos contemporâneos (quinhentistas), a existência de representantes do povo é uma constante. Ao apresentar esses representantes, alguns permanentes, outros, extraordinários, quais são as intenções de Mornay? Este artigo procura mostrar que, para o autor das Vindiciae, esses eram os legítimos representantes (dos interesses) do povo. Os exemplos apresentados visavam estabelecer uma importante correlação do que ocorria em outros lugares e épocas em relação ao que o autor pretendia na França quinhentista. De igual forma mostra que o rei não reinava ‘sozinho’, que o poder era (ou devia ser) compartilhado com esses representantes do povo que detinham alguma forma de prestígio, influência e autoridade. E finalmente apresentar aqueles que seriam os representantes do povo na resistência à tirania.

Middle Korean ㅿ and the Cheju dialect

AbstractAll records of Middle Korean are exclusively in the Central dialect, the prestige form spoken in the capital, and all printed material in the newly-created Hangǔl script emanated from there. For this reason, historical studies must rely on modern dialect data for comparison and reconstruction, since there are virtually no early dialect materials. In this study, I investigate the nature of the MK ㅿ, which is most often realized as /Ø/ in Modern Standard Korean, but which often surfaces as /s/ in Southern varieties, including the most conservative of these dialects, Cheju Korean. Sino-Korean forms in Cheju dialect containing an /s/ reflex of ㅿ demonstrate not only that ㅿ was realized as /z/ in such forms, but also that the dialects must have had special phonological rules to deal with their pronunciation. A further important issue concerns the nature of doublets and their treatment in both Middle Korean and Cheju dialect.