Formal Childcare Research Articles

From dawn till dusk: Implications of full-day care for children’s development

An important issue on the political agenda of many developed countries is the intensive margin of formal child care and, consequently, the effects of expanding the operating hours of child care institutions. We add to this debate by studying the effects of offering full-day child care on child development. Specifically, we analyze the consequences of a substantial increase of full-day slots at the expense of half-day slots and hence, when holding the extensive margin constant. The conversion was triggered by several reforms to the German child care system. Using unique administrative data covering the full population of eight birth cohorts in one West German state, we find that more hours have a negative effect on children’s socio-emotional well-being. Subgroup analysis suggests that this result is driven by children from disadvantaged family backgrounds, especially those from low-education backgrounds, single-parent households and migrant families. On a brighter note, we find that full-day care has a positive effect on the school readiness of immigrant children.

Linking Formal Child Care Characteristics to Children\u2019s Socioemotional Well-Being: A Comparative Perspective

Most research on formal child care and children’s outcomes has focused on single countries. We, however, contend that policy context may moderate the association between formal child care characteristics and children’s socioemotional well-being. We examined this by comparing the Netherlands, Finland and the UK; three countries that differ regarding family policies. Of these three countries, Finland was recently ranked highest (ranked 1st) with regards to quality of child care in a recent analysis by the Economist, followed by the UK (ranked 3rd) and then the Netherlands (ranked 7th). We hypothesized that children who attend child-care settings in countries with higher-quality formal child-care provision would generally show better socioemotional outcomes. Data from the comparative ‘Families 24/7’ survey were used, including 990 parents with children aged 0–12. We distinguished between two age groups in our analysis. Results indicated that, compared to the UK, longer hours in formal care were less beneficial in the Netherlands. Furthermore, spending time in formal care during nonstandard hours was more harmful for children in Finland compared to the UK. Lastly, receiving care from multiple caregivers was more disruptive for British children than for Dutch children. No differences were found between Finland and the Netherlands.

Parenting Stress and the Use of Formal and Informal Child Care: Associations for Fathers and Mothers

We investigated relationships between nonparental care and psychological strains of parenthood. Using data from employed parents of children below 5 years of age ( n = 6,886 fathers and mothers) from Waves 4 to 11 of the household panel survey Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA), we constructed a parenting stress scale from the average of four items (α = .76) administered in the Self-Completion Questionnaire. We ran panel random-effects regression models testing associations between amount and type of nonparental care and parenting stress, for both mothers and fathers. We distinguished between formal care, informal and family care (mainly grandparents), and mixed care. Results showed that fathers and mothers’ parenting stress is positively associated with hours of nonparental care, but that for both genders parenting stress is significantly lower if the care is provided by informal/family carers.

Grandparents’ Role in Spanish Families’ Work/Life Balance Strategies

In recent years, grandparental childcare has been instrumental to Spanish parents’ ability to engage in paid work. At the same time, the use of formal childcare services, paid domestic assistance and parental leave-taking have also intensified. The objectives of this study are: (1) to estimate the scope of the support received from grandparents in caring for children; and (2) to assess the impact of the diversification of childcare resources on highly frequent grandparental childcare in two-parent families. The sample covered the 2304 parents with at least one child under 13 interviewed on the occasion of the Survey on the Use of Parental Leave in Spain, 2012. Three types of factors were analysed: (1) use of external childcare resources; (2) time devoted by parents to childcare and paid work; and (3) control factors measuring grandparents’ availability, childcare needs and income. The findings suggested that international comparative studies based on the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) underestimate the scope of grandparental childcare. Two-parent families with higher incomes resorted less frequently to grandparental childcare. In addition, formal childcare services, paid domestic work and parental leaves are associated with less frequent grandparental involvement. Overall, the findings suggest that more diversified deployment of the available resources may contribute to reducing grandparental childcare.

The Matthew effect in childcare use: a matter of policies or preferences?

ABSTRACTUnder the social investment paradigm, formal childcare services are heralded as being the policy instrument par excellence to combat social exclusion. However, it was shown that a Matthew effect (ME) in its use is present in almost all European countries: disadvantaged children are less likely to use childcare than more advantaged children. In this contribution we aim to uncover the cause of the ME by distinguishing between supply-side and demand-side explanations. This refers to constraints in the availability or affordability of childcare and to dominant cultural norms on motherhood. In doing so, we take due account of the role of employment. The results show that the ME in formal childcare cannot be explained by class differences in employment. Moreover, the ME is related to the supply-side and much less to the demand-side. Structural constraints in childcare provision matter everywhere and tend to limit the uptake of childcare, especially for disadvantaged children. In contrast, cultural norms on motherhood are a less important predictor of the ME in childcare use. This means that more investment in the provision of childcare services is necessary in order to achieve its ambitious policy goals.

An Analysis of the Australian Government's Jobs for Families Child Care Package: The Utility of Bacchi's WPR Methodology to Identify Potential Influences on Parents’ Childcare Choices

ISSUES OF CHILDCARE AFFORDABILITY, availability and flexibility in Australia have long restricted choice for parents wanting to use formal child care. To address these issues, the Australian Government developed the Jobs for Families Child Care Package, which passed through the Australian Parliament in 2017. This paper reports findings from a study that employed Bacchi's ‘ What's the Problem Represented to be’ (WPR) methodology to analyse the potential impact of the Package on parents’ childcare choices. Consistent with submissions from peak bodies and policy analysts, Bacchi's WPR analysis uncovered potential lived and subjectification effects, which are likely to diminish the choices of disadvantaged families. Additionally, the analysis identified three discursive effects that complicate workforce participation and childcare choice. Utilising a WPR approach and disrupting the Australian Government's positioning of child care as a means to support workforce participation can inform advocacy that aims to re-centre childcare policy onto the rights of the child.

Usage and Quality of Formal Child Care Services Experienced by Infants and Toddlers in Foster and Kinship Care: An Australian Study

This research uses data from the Early Childhood in Foster and Kinship Care (ECIFKC) study to identify the proportion of young children, under 2 years of age, in foster and kinship care who use formal child care; weekly hours of child care; predictors of weekly hours of child care; and quality of care experienced. The sample for these analyses involved 39 foster and kinship care children. A higher proportion of ECIFKC children used child care compared to same-aged Australian peers and experienced more weekly hours of child care than other Australian children. Quality of child care was broadly the same as for other young Australian children. Factors associated with more weekly hours of child care included living in a placement with a single caregiver and being in a placement with a sibling. This finding suggested that child care participation may be provided with the goal of respite for caregivers. While the child care experienced met Australian national quality standards, the long hours that some children spent in child care is concerning. It is also unclear whether extra supports and quality features may be important to meet the special needs of foster and kinship care children in child care settings.

Exploring Grandparents' Roles in Young Children's Lifestyle Behaviors and the Prevention of Childhood Obesity: An Australian Perspective

Childhood obesity remains a significant public health issue. Because lifestyle behaviors and weight are established early and track through life stages, prevention strategies must commence in the first years of life. Traditionally, such strategies target parents or formal child care providers. Yet grandparents are increasingly providing care to grandchildren and therefore have an important role in their eating and activity behaviors, which creates a major research gap. This commentary piece, focusing on the Australian context, argues that it is imperative and timely for obesity prevention research to include investigations regarding the role of grandparents in the prevention of obesity-related behaviors in young children.

Does Work Make Mothers Happy?

The paper explores the link between employment and subjective well-being among mothers with children under 3 years of age. It uses a pooled sample from the ESS 2004–2014 data from 30 European countries. Analyzing multiple measures of subjective well-being, the paper shows that homemakers are generally happier than full-time workers. No significant differences between homemakers and part-time workers were found. Contrary to our expectations, homemaking was positively associated with happiness particularly among mothers who left higher quality employment for childcare. Though some variation across countries exists, it is not linked to the provision of formal childcare, duration of parental leave, or tax system.

Does Formal Child Care Availability for 0–3 Year Olds Boost Mothers' Employment Rate? Panel Data Based Evidence from Belgium

In 2003, a new multi-annual program aimed at increasing the availability of formal child care for 0-3 year old children was launched in Wallonia, the French-speaking part of Belgium. This paper is interested in evaluating if this increased availability of formal child care resulted in a higher employment rate for women with at least one child under 3. To this end, we use a difference-in-differences approach based on municipality-level panel data, taking advantage of the fact that the increase in availability of formal child care differed greatly across municipalities. We find that the raise in child care availability significantly increased the maternal employment rate, but to a lesser extent than expected, most likely because of a substantial crowding-out effect.

Household Labor Supply, Child Development and Childcare Policies in the United States

This paper studies the dynamic relationship between parental labor supply, children's cognitive development and intra-household bargaining power. To do so, I construct a model that incorporates preference heterogeneity across and within households, a constrained cooperative bargaining framework with explicit outside options, a dynamic technology of the child's cognitive development, and endogenous parental human capital and wages. Using detailed U.S. panel data on married households, I identify and estimate the model with the Method of Simulated Moments, and show that it replicates observable trends and heterogeneity in parental time use, the use of formal childcare arrangements and child test scores. I use the model to simulate the effects of cash transfers and formal childcare subsidies. First, I find that the cost-effectiveness of the recently expanded Child Tax Credit, in terms of fostering child cognition and reducing intra-household inequality, could be improved by giving cash to mothers directly, and by making the credit increase with the child's age. Second, I consider expansions of the Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit which offer larger formal childcare subsidies and relax the employment requirements. I estimate that a 25 percent subsidy could boost young children's skills by over 0.1 standard deviations, increase maternal labor supply even when there is no work requirement, and be financed at no additional cost through a 50 percent reduction in the Child Tax Credit for households with young children.

Life-cycle and intergenerational effects of child care reforms

We investigate the importance of various mechanisms by which child care policies can affect life‐cycle patterns of employment and fertility among women, as well as long‐run cognitive outcomes among children. A dynamic structural model of employment, fertility, and child care use is estimated using Norwegian administrative data. The estimation exploits a large‐scale child care reform, which provided generous cash transfers to mothers who did not use formal child care facilities. We find that the reform generates sizable changes in employment and fertility decisions, especially among low‐education women. We then use the mothers' unobserved heterogeneity in the structural model as a control function to examine the effects of mothers' behavior on long‐run cognitive outcomes of children. The reform leads to lower reading scores among children, primarily as a result of mothers shifting to inferior forms of care. In counterfactual simulations, we compare the effects of an alternative child care subsidy, an expanded maternity leave program, and a tax deduction for mothers with children. Female labor supply child care reform fertility cognitive development of children discrete choice dynamic programming C35 J13 J22 H31 I28

Childcare and Maternity Protection Reforms in Korea: Policy-Layering Features in Comparative Perspectives

The article shows transformative changes in Korea’s family policies over the last two decades. It suggests that the reform has been mainly adopted in the form of childcare and maternity protection delivered as a result of state action in addressing a declining fertility rate. By using the concept of policy-layering with the process-tracing of historical methods, this article provides a case study that contributes to explaining the mechanisms of policy change and development in newly industrialized countries like Korea over welfare regime theories. It thereby shows the limit of typological thinking, while providing policy implications and lessons.

The wall for mothers with first graders: availability of afterschool childcare and continuity of maternal labor supply in Japan

In Japan, the availability of afterschool childcare for young school children is quite limited, although many preschool children attend daycare centers. As a result, parents experience a sudden lack of formal childcare when their child starts school. This dearth of childcare services is notorious, and has been referred to as the “Wall for Mothers with First Graders”. To illustrate the quantitative impacts of the Wall, I compare the maternal labor supply between nuclear and three-generation households at the time of the firstborn child’s school entry. Since mothers from three-generation households generally substitute formal afterschool childcare with informal childcare provided by the grandparents, I hypothesize that the first child’s school entry mainly affects the labor supply of mothers from nuclear households. Using the Japanese Panel Survey of Consumers, a difference-in-differences/event-study analysis is applied to the sample of mothers whose firstborn child was in daycare as a preschooler. The overall findings are generally consistent with my hypothesis. First, the baseline result shows that the labor market participation rate decreases by 10.9 percentage points at the time of their firstborn child’s school entry among mothers from nuclear households compared with those from three-generation households. Second, the firstborn child’s school entry decreases his/her mother’s daily paid work by about half an hour and increases time allocated to housework and childcare by the same amount. Taken together, this study shows that the shortage of afterschool childcare among nuclear households interrupts maternal labor supply.

Introduction: Perspectives on Family, Friend and Neighbor Child Care

Introduces a series of essays that explore family, friend, and neighbor child care. This form of child care has often been portrayed as "substandard, unregulated care" without any adequate research to support this claim. In 2005, the National Alliance for Family, Friend and Neighbor Child Care was formed. This series aims to encourage greater recognition of the role that kith and kin caregivers play in the child care continuum - offering a review of recent research, programs, and policy.

“The Minor Would Hinder the Mother in Finding Employment:” Child Protection and Women’s Paid Work in Early State Socialist Hungary

This article discusses the role of child protection and residential care institutions in mediating the tension between women’s productive and reproductive responsibilities in early state socialist Hungary. At a time when increasing numbers of women entered paid work in the framework of catch-up industrialization but the socialization of care work was inadequate, these institutions substituted for missing public child care services. Relying on not only policy documents but more than six hundred children’s case files, including Romani children’s files, from three different locations in Hungary as well as interviews with former children’s home residents and personnel, the article examines the regulatory framework in which child protection institutions and caseworkers operated. It points to the differentiated forms of pressure these institutions exercised on Romani and non-Romani mothers to enter paid work between the late 1940s and the early 1950s from the intersectional perspective of gender and ethnicity. Showing that prejudice against “Gypsies” as work-shy persisted in child protection work across the systemic divide of the late 1940s, the article contributes to scholarship on state socialism and Stalinism that emphasizes the role of historical continuities. At the same time, reflecting on parental invention in using child protection as a form of child care, the article also complicates a simplistic social control approach to residential care institutions in Stalinist Hungary.

Modern forms of dental preventive care for children

Diseases of teeth and oral cavity have a high prevalence in pediatric population. In adolescents of 15-17 years, the incidence of caries in permanent teeth is higher than in children of 0-14 years. Epidemiological studies of dental health of children in various regions of the Russian Federation in 2010-2015 years showed no tendency to decrease the level of diseases of mouth and teeth. Prevalence and intensity of diseases remains at a high level. More than 80% of the surveyed children are in need of complex dental treatment. The current situation of pathology of teeth and mouth in children is due to several reasons such as low level of hygiene education, environmental degradation, poor nutrition, presence of chronic diseases, among older children, the presence of harmful habits, health-care organizations lack of effective preventive work. In turn, untreated inflammatory diseases of the oral cavity and teeth, being the source of the infection, may lead to somatic pathology of different organs and systems. The existing organization of children dental care is focused more on treatment than on prevention of diseases of teeth and oral cavity. As a rule, parents bring children to dental clinic for treatment of already developed disease. Referrals to the dentist for preventive measures are rare. In this regard, it is necessary to develop new organizational forms of dental care, from the point of view of the preventive orientation, close to children's educational organization.

Efficient Child Care Subsidies

We study the design of child care subsidies in an optimal welfare problem with heterogeneous private market productivities. The optimal subsidy schedule is qualitatively similar to the existing US scheme. Efficiency mandates a subsidy on formal child care costs, with higher subsidies paid to lower income earners and a kink as a function of child care expenditure. Marginal labor income tax rates are set lower than the labor wedges, with the potential to generate negative marginal tax rates. We calibrate our simple model to features of the US labor market and focus on single mothers with children aged below 6. The optimal program provides stronger participation but milder intensive margin incentives for low-income earners with subsidy rates starting very high and decreasing with income more steeply than those in the United States. (JEL D82, H21, H24, J13, J16, J32)

Parenthood and Life Satisfaction in Europe: The Role of Family Policies and Working Time Flexibility.

The life satisfaction of parents residing with dependent children varies greatly between countries. This article examines how country-level characteristics-the provision of family allowances and formal child care, and the level of working time flexibility-account for these cross-national differences, using data from the European Social Survey from 2004 and 2010 for 27 countries. Parents report greater life satisfaction in countries that offer generous financial benefits to families, high child care provision, and high working time flexibility than parents residing in counties with low levels of support. Results also show that these national contextual factors are associated with lower levels of financial strain and work-life conflicts among parents. These findings suggest that the mitigating effect of family benefits, child care provision, and working time flexibility on the psychosocial and financial burdens of parenthood is a key mechanism in the association between national contextual factors and parental life satisfaction.

Grandchild Care and Female Labor Supply: Evidence from a Universal Child Care Program in China

As an important employment supportive policy, the impact of universal and subsidized child care on the mothers and children has aroused extensive concern in the research community. However, little is known about how grandmothers respond to easier accessibility to public child care. This paper fills the gap by evaluating the effect of increasing accessibility to formal child care facility on female labor supply from the perspective of grandchild care. Utilizing the first universal child care program in China, we develop a Differences-in-Differences strategy to identify the causal effect. Exploiting the variation in child care facility expansion intensity across provinces and over years, we find that the universal child care has a strong and robust positive effect on promoting labor force participation of the female aged 40 to 60 with preschool grandchildren, while the male are not influenced. Further investigation into the hours worked per week suggests that the effect is mostly at extensive margins while rarely at intensive margins. Moreover, the effect is more significant for individuals from higher-income family, with higher educational attainment, and to join in the wage-earning sector.