Atypical Forms Of Employment Research Articles

Flexicurity and Employment Security: The Dutch Way

Flexicurity represents a concept that aims at enhancing both labour market flexibility and employment and income security. The European Union has picked up this concept in its European Employment Strategy, inspired by developments in a number of its member states. This paper describes the way that flexicurity has developed in the Dutch context. The core of this development can be characterized as the ‘normalisation’ of atypical forms of employment, offering securities to these workers, but without curbing the flexibility in the labour market. Notwithstanding good performance in terms of low unemployment and high labour market participation the Netherlands faces further challenges with regard to flexicurity and security. The second part of the paper focuses on the question how employment security could be best organised in the Dutch labour market. Employment security is defined as the security to get a job and to remain in employment, but not necessarily in the same job with the same employer. Thus, employment security differs from job security. The paper presents and discusses empirical results of a study on arrangements or systems to prevent unemployment for employees who are threatened by redundancy. An analysis is carried out of “job to job” transition arrangements whereby the Netherlands is compared with Sweden. The question is raised whether a systematic approach can be observed in these two countries to warrant new employment opportunities for employees who have been given notice. The different actors and coordination mechanisms involved in these systems are identified. Furthermore, the relevant preconditions for ‘job to job transition systems’ to be successful are fleshed out. The paper concludes with lessons that, from an international perspective, can be learned in shaping employment security as (literally) the security of the future.

Start-Up Incentives: Entrepreneurship Policy or Active Labour Market Programme?

This paper investigates the determinants of the transitions from unemployment to paid employment, own-account work, and employership in Europe, with special focus on the role of some macroeconomic variables. Our results suggest that the coexistence of recession periods, start-up incentives, and strict employment protection may be distorting the occupational choice against true entrepreneurs and favour certain forms of self-employment - such as last resort or dependent. Therefore, public expenditure designed to move the unemployed back to employment might be detrimental to employment rights and the social protection of workers by favouring atypical forms of employment outside the scope of labour laws.

Empirical research findings on telework: Management experiences and attitudes

Based on the technological progress and the complex work processes of our increasingly globalised world, novel ways of organising work can be seen everywhere. The EU has defined atypical forms of employment as breakthrough points in improving employment indices. Telework is probably the the most innovative atypical working form, offering huge amount of benefits for the employer, employee and the society. Gaining a deeper understanding of employment trends and employers’ decision-making mechanisms, we can understand the specifics of this spreading working form, and we can use this knowledge to stimulate the employment trends. This study summarises the finding of an empirical research among medium and large enterprises in Hungary using telework.

Does Marginal Employment Substitute Regular Employment? - A Heterogeneous Dynamic Labor Demand Approach for Germany

In Germany we observe a decline in regular employment and an increase in atypical forms of employment. Especially marginal part-time employment which is characterized by lower tax rates and lower social security contributions increased substantially after a reform in 2003 made this type of employment even more attractive to employers. In our paper we estimate the substitutability of regular employment by marginal part-time employment using data on the industry level before and after the reform.We detect high substitution elasticities with respect to three skill categories of regular employment in both time periods. The substitutability of unskilled full-time workers increased significantly after the reform.

A Note on Immigrant Representation in Temporary Agency Work and Self‐employment in Sweden

Abstract. This is a note on the immigrant representation in two forms of atypical employment in Sweden: self‐employment and temporary agency work. The employment rate among non‐western immigrants is substantially lower than among natives and using register data for the population in Sweden who were employed in 1999, we find that immigrants are over‐represented in both these forms of atypical employment. Immigrants from Asia are over‐represented in both forms of employment, whereas immigrants from South America are over‐represented among temporary agency workers but underrepresented among the self‐employed. These findings can be interpreted as an indication of that temporary agency work and self‐employment are used as alternatives to regular employment by groups in which unemployment is high.

Flexicurity in Bismarckian Countries? Old Age Protection for Non-standard Workers in Belgium

In the debate on ‘flexicurity’, relatively little attention has been paid to how responsive traditional areas of social security have been to increasing flexibility in the labour market. This article tries to fill this gap by focusing on the Belgian pension system. In particular, it asks to what extent pension regulation in the three pillars has been adapted to the proliferation of atypical forms of employment. It does so by examining whether there are significant differences between old age protection of standard and non-standard workers. The article pursues a double research strategy: an analysis of Belgian legislation and relevant collective labour agreements is complemented with a statistical analysis of the Panel Study of Belgian Households (PSBH). The results show that part-time employment results in a lower first-pillar pension, while other forms of temporal flexibility such as career interruptions and temporary unemployment do not. In the second pillar, our findings suggest that workers with contractual flexibility and job mobility are discriminated against. Finally, non-standard workers do not appear to compensate for lower pension protection through increased participation in the third pension pillar. Our findings suggest the need for a re-assessment of the system of ‘assimilated’ periods. To conclude, we point to some implications for the design of flexicurity policies.

The Psychological Relationship between Companies and Freelancers: An Empirical Study of the Commitment and the Work-related Expectations of Freelancers

For some years now a tendency towards a more flexible shaping of employment has been observable. Little research, however, has been dedicated to the question of how relevant this is for the commitment of freelance employees. Therefore the present paper first reverts to the question as to whether - and if so, under what preconditions - freelancers are likely to feel commitment towards the company that employs them. Second, the paper identifies clusters of freelancers following their work-related expectations. On the basis of an empirical study among IT-freelancers it becomes clear that freelancers differ from permanent employees as regards their work-related expectations. Consequences for their felt commitment hence ensue. All in all it is mainly an affective commitment towards their company which they perceive. Key words: Commitment, Flexible Employment Forms, Freelanced Employees, Work-related Expectations 1. Introduction On the German labour market, clear tendencies of a transition to more flexible employment forms can be detected in recent years. This leads to far-reaching changes in the workforce structure of many companies: Tasks are no longer accomplished within companies but rather outsourced to specialists who perform at higher levels of efficiency. Within the outsourcing companies workplaces become obsolete and a segregation from permanent employees ensues (Storey/Salaman/Platman 2005). Against this background, it is not surprising that a continuous turning away from the so called regular employer-employee1 relationship may be observed in recent years. In Germany, these employments are understood as a durably conceived relationship that is based upon a perpetual contract and carried out in full time. Different atypical employments take the place of regular employer-employee relationships. Temporary work (contracts) and part-time employment can already be noticed for some time. Besides, a tendency towards self-employment may be detected in recent years. It is discussed in literature and corporate practice under different notions as new self-employed or freelance. Data gained by the German Institut fur Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung (institute for labour market and job research) (IAB) demonstrate that about 40 % of all employees are not employed in a regular employeremployee relationship (Hoffmann/Walwei 2002). The number of freelancers in Germany is estimated to be round about two million with an increasing tendency (Moldaschl 2003: 109). The notion freelancer is not clearly defined in Germany, neither from a juridical (social law) nor from an economic (business administration) perspective. It can hence not be excluded that its usage in corporate practice shows overlapping with other forms of atypical employment. In corporate practice freelancers are seen as people who perform in a personal, self-dependent and - irrespective of professions - intellectually ideal way for their employer. The employer can be a company as well as other individuals. As a rule, freelancers are specifically qualified - e.g. as an IT-freelancer and are to be flexibly employed as regards time or location (Freelancerverband 2004). In Germany, highly qualified freelancers are particularly represented in media (journalists at the press, radio or television), in consulting firms, and in the IT-industry (Statistisches Bundesamt 2003: 72-73). As a consequence of more flexible employment forms, permanent staff in companies diminishes while peripheral staff increases (Torka/Looise/Van Riemsdijk 2005). On the one hand, companies benefit through economic advantages. They particularly consist in a reduction of fixed labour costs and supplementary costs, higher flexibility and an externalisation of the risk of fluctuating utilisation. On the other hand, numerous indicators are to be found for negative changes in the social and psychological relationship between companies and freelancers. As a result of the expected flexibility and their rather lose, temporary contractual relationship to a company it is argued that freelancers may show - considerably - less identification and loyalty to a company than permanent employees (Anderson/Schalk 1998; Pfeffer 2005). …

Smokescreen or Opening a Can of Worms? Workplace HIV/AIDS Peer Education and Social Protection in South Africa

The HIV/AIDS epidemic threatens amongst other things social protection provided in the workplace. Social protection comprises a range of rights and responsibilities that afford security to workers and their dependants. Any increase in diseases that impact on working age adults will have a detrimental affect on the levels of social protection that can be afforded. Additionally Rosen and Simon (2003) have suggested that private sector companies are shifting the burden of the disease by means of inter alia atypical employment forms and the capping of employee benefits. Such responses both reduce the overall level of social protection and increase differentials between core and peripheral workers within companies. Alongside any shifting of the burden of HIV/AIDS South African companies are actively implementing workplace HIV/AIDS programmes. These involve a number of components including HIV/AIDS peer educators who form a frontline of advice and support for workers. Drawing on research in five large South African companies this article assesses the activities of workplace peer educators (PE) and how this might impact on social protection in the workplace. (excerpt)

De pensioenbescherming van flexibele werknemers in België

Old age protection of flexible workers in Belgium Old age protection of flexible workers in Belgium This article investigates to what extent the Belgian pension system is adapted to the proliferation of a-typical forms of employment. Are there any differences between the old age protection of flexible and non-flexible workers? What are the effects of flexible employment on participation in the three pension pillars and on the level of pension benefits? To answer these questions, the article pursues a double research strategy: an analysis of Belgian legislation and relevant collective labour agreements is complemented with a statistical analysis on the Panel Study of Belgian Households (PSBH). The analyses show that part-time employment results in a lower pension, while other forms of temporal flexibility such as temporary leave arrangements and temporary unemployment do not. In the second pillar we find that contractual and transitional flexible workers are discriminated. Finally, the results indicate that flexible workers do not compensate for lower pension protection through increased participation in the third pension pillar. Our findings suggest that a re-assessment of the system of ‘assimilated’ periods is required, as well as the development of a system of coordinated regulation for the three pension pillars.

The impact of european law on the Polish regulation of atypical employment contracts

The wording “atypical forms of employment” is grounded on juxtaposing it with typical employment, i.e. full‐time employment, for indefinite period and in one place of work. However one can notice that different forms of atypical work have spread so much at present that the expression “atypical” is becoming less and less adequate for the majority of them.

Atypical Employment and Flexicurity

Hitherto, discussion of flexicurity has focused on normal employment (Normalarbeitsverhaltnis), with atypical work receiving only cursory attention. This paper attempts to remedy this conceptual oversight by identifying strategies for reducing the social risks. We begin by analysing the two components that make up flexicurity. Therefore, we draw on the conceptual framework of forms of flexibilization. As far as social security is concerned, we propose a set of criteria that take into account short-term and long-term effects. We then describe the different forms of atypical work and their development since the 1980s. It is necessary to establish which individuals are particularly affected. Then we discuss the extent to which the individual forms are not just atypical but also precarious. Finally, we offer further reflections on the concept of flexicurity. Key words: Atypical Emplyoment, Flexicurity, Flexibilization, Flexibility, Normalsarbeitsverhaltnis 1. Introduction: Setting the Scene In the past, the question of atypical work has featured in the debate on deregulation largely only in terms of employment policy aspects and the controversy surrounding the reforms. The assumption is that flexibilization will lead to the creation of more jobs (Bericht der Kommission 2002; Bundesrat 2003). In contrast, longer-term social security and employability issues have been somewhat overlooked. This imbalance in the emphasis placed on flexibility and social security is also evident in the first and second of the so-called Hartz Laws for Modern Services on the Labour Market (Moderne Dienstleistungen am Arbeitsmarkt) that provide for an expansion in atypical forms of employment in the short term while failing to adopt measures to guard against the long-term risks implicit in this type of work. The concept of flexicurity offers an alternative to this one-sided approach by attempting to attach equal importance to both aspects (for a summary, see Transfer 2004). In addition to taking into account the different interests of the various labour market players, a fair balance of flexibility and social security can in the long term contribute to improving labour market efficiency (OECD 2004a). Hitherto, discussion of flexicurity has focused primarily on normal employment (Normalarbeitsverhaltnis), with atypical work receiving only cursory attention. This paper will attempt to remedy this conceptual oversight by identifying strategies for reducing the social risks associated with flexible forms of employment. Regulation, either in the shape of legislation or collective agreements, is one such option. We begin by analysing the two components that make up flexicurity. In order to evaluate the importance of atypical forms of employment in companies' flexibility strategies, we draw on the conceptual framework of different forms of flexibilization developed by the OECD (1986, 1989). As far as social security is concerned, we propose a set of criteria that take into account both short-term and long-term effects (ILO 2004). We then move on to describe the different forms of atypical work and their development. There has been an overall increase in this type of work since the 1980s, although the different forms have not all increased at the same rate. Furthermore, it is clear that atypical work is set to become increasingly important, especially if the deregulation measures continue to be implemented. It is therefore also necessary to establish which individuals are particularly affected by the different forms. Having done this, we discuss the extent to which the individual forms can be considered to be not just atypical but also precarious. Finally, we offer some further reflections on the concept of flexicurity. 2. Aspects of Flexicurity Before examining the two aspects of flexibility and social security, it is necessary to define the different types of atypical employment. 2. …

Reforming the German Labour Market: The Case of Temporary Agency Work

Germany is known as one of the countries where the collective representation of interests through associations (‘corporatism’) is particularly strong. However, after the tripartite Alliance for Jobs, Training and Competitiveness failed to agree on solutions for combating high unemployment, an independent commission established by the government (the ‘Hartz commission’) has currently set the agenda for labour market reform. This article addresses the question of whether these events signal the end of corporatism in labour market policy in Germany. An analysis of temporary agency work, an atypical form of employment addressed by the Hartz reforms, shows that fundamental reform in Germany must be initiated outside the system of tripartite interest negotiation. However, the implementation of such reforms depends on the traditional structures of interest negotiation between the social partners.

Flexicurity – the German trajectory

The focus of this article is the concept of ‘flexicurity’, flexibility linked to social security. We shall look at the issue in terms of the institutional framework in Germany and as an alternative to pure flexibilisation. The central elements are the four related concepts of (i) transitional labour markets, (ii) collective bargaining and working time policies which safeguard employment, (iii) lifelong learning, and (iv) provision for old age. These can be looked at from an analytical perspective, as well as in terms of the periods of employment and of post-employment. Furthermore, we deal with different forms of atypical employment in terms of the concept of flexicurity developed here.

Atypical working incorporate Greece

The issue of non‐standard forms of employment has sparked controversy in Greece. At the same time the expansion of atypical employment has been identified by policy makers as a central component of economic policy in combating high unemployment. However, there is a marked absence of empirical studies on this issue. This study sheds light on contractual flexibility surveying thirty establishments. The survey used an employer questionnaire to assess the extent to which Greek employers have engaged in various forms of atypical employment as well as the driving forces and managerial perceptions of the pertinent institutional framework. Results reveal that temporary work is the primary source of contractual flexibility, and that this is mainly used to adjust corporate capacity to demand variations, not to cut labour costs. Managerial discontent with governmental legislation on working time flexibility has led employers to embrace the EU's flexibility‐security approach through collective bargaining.

The impact of atypical employment on individual wellbeing: evidence from a panel of British workers

This study explores the relationship between individual wellbeing and atypical employment, which includes both temporary and part-time employment schemes. Individual wellbeing is measured in terms of subjective indicators of mental health, general health status, life satisfaction, and job satisfaction. It addresses four questions: (1) Are workers on a temporary contract more likely to report poor health and poor life and job satisfaction than those who are employed in permanent jobs? (2) Is this the case for part-time workers compared to those who are in a full-time job? (3) Do changes in employment profiles (e.g., from a fixed-term contract to a permanent job, or from part-time employment to full-time employment) affect individuals’ health and life satisfaction? (4) Are there differences in such relationships between men and women? To answer these questions, logistic regression models were used to analyse a panel of almost 7000 male and female workers from the first 10 waves of the British Household Panel Survey, 1991–2000. Controlling for background characteristics, atypical employment does not appear to be associated with adverse health consequences for either men or women, when both health and employment are measured at the same time. However, there is evidence that job satisfaction is reduced for seasonal/casual workers and is higher for part-timers. Taking account of selection issues does not change the general picture: the chances of poor mental and physical health and low life satisfaction are unaffected by atypical employment and some of the effects of job satisfaction persist. In addition, very few employment transitions appear to be consequential for a worsening in health outcomes, which tends to be observed in the case of job satisfaction. Although the pattern of results suggests that atypical forms of employment do not have durable adverse health consequences on workers, public policies that aim at improving the working conditions of workers in weak bargaining positions should give special attention to equity issues, including the possible health effects of experience of work in atypical employment arrangements.

The hidden organisational costs of using non‐standard employment

The growth of non‐standard or atypical forms of employment, such as part‐time, casual work and so on, represents one of the most dramatic changes in the structure of employment in Australia and other countries since the late 1970s. Management employment strategies have been identified as a major causal factor in the expansion of non‐standard employment. Employers are increasingly using these atypical forms of employment as a means of lowering direct labour costs. Argues, however, that there are a number of hidden costs involved in using non‐standard employment that are not commonly taken into consideration. Highlights the negative effects atypical employment can have on work relations, and the motivation of employees, based on a detailed hospital case study and other evidence. Argues that atypical labour may serve to undermine quality standards and the attainment of business strategies.

Equal Opportunity between Men and Women: The Case of France

The article deals with the implementation of equal opportunities and positive action in the field of work in France. After presenting a few characteristic trends of the evolution of the status of women on the labor market, the author presents the legal and policy framework of professional equality in France. She then discusses the positive action strategies which have been implemented by firms and explores reasons for their relative scarcity. In a final section, she deals with the recent evolution of the labor market. The rapid growth in part time employment could be seen as a possible solution to the problem of reconciling work and family life. However, in practice, the two processes, reconciliation of work and family life and the development of atypical forms of employment may combine to restructure the labor market in such a way that the inequalities affecting particular categories of women become cumulative.

Gender inequalities in European unemployment benefit systems

The most important structural change which has occurred on the labour market over the past 30 years is the sustained and continued growth of female labour supply. Two‐earner couples have become a majority in most European countries and lone parents, mostly women, are also on the rise. On the other hand, since 1975, labour market policies have altered the quality and nature of employment in Europe by promoting atypical forms of employment where women are overrepresented. The analysis has shown us that atypical employment results in restricted access to unemployment benefits. Moreover, combining the presence of more stringent conditions with derived rights results in more and more women being dependent upon their spouses for financial as well as social protection and can even have a disincentive effect on formal labour market participation.

Atypical work in the European experience

The persistent employment crisis that dogged all of the countries of the European Community, with the exception of Luxembourg, throughout the 1980s has led to the spread of all sorts of jobs which cannot be compared with full-time, life-time work: part-time employment; temporary employment; jobs created by the public authorities; and work experience schemes for young people, as well as jobs with varied or unusual schedules. The present study follows the evolution of the principal forms of atypical employment during three periods (1983–1985, 1985–1990 and 1990–1994), revealing the constants and the variations, as well as the national divergences in the development of the methods of flexibility and of organisation of working time. The first part looks at divergences and convergences, whilst a second highlights the localisation of the types of atypical employment in certain segments of the labour market

The European social space: Atypical forms of employment and working hours in the European Community

The European social space: Atypical forms of employment and working hours in the European Community