Form Board Test Research Articles

Clinical and genetic characterization of patients segregating variants in KPTN, MINPP1, NGLY1, AP4B1, and SON underlying neurodevelopmental disorders: Genetic and phenotypic expansion.

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are heterogeneous genetic conditions of the central nervous system (CNS). Primary phenotypes of NDDs include epilepsy, loss of developmental skills, abnormal movements, muscle weakness, ocular anomalies, hearing problems, and macro- or microcephaly. NDDs occur due to variants in genes encoding proteins involved in the structure and function of CNS, thus interrupting its normal physiological role. In the study presented here, four consanguineous families (A-D), with members showing neurodevelopmental symptoms, were recruited for clinical and genetic characterization of the phenotypes. Clinical examinations, including Seguin Form Board Test (SFBT), Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS), brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), Electroencephalogram (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), Nerve Conduction Velocity (NCV), and Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy, were employed to characterize the disease phenotypes. Whole exome sequencing (WES) followed by Sanger sequencing was employed to search for the genetic basis of the neurological symptoms observed in four families (A-D). Two of these families (A, B) were of Saudi Arabian origin, and two others (C, D) were of Pakistan origin. Two homozygous missense (KPTN: NM_007059.4:c.301T>G: NP_008990.2; p.(Phe101Val) and MINPP1:NM_001178118.2:c.1202G>A: NP_001171588.1; p.(Arg401Gln)) variants in families A and B, respectively, and two homozygous nonsense (NGLY1:NM_018297.3:c.1534_1541dup: NP_060767.2; p.(Ser515LysfsTer51) and AP4B1:NM_001253852:c.1668G>A: NP_001240781.1; p.(Trp556X)) variants in families C and D, respectively, were identified. Interestingly, additional heterozygous nonsense variant in SON: NM_138927.2: c.5753_5756del: NP_620305.3; p.(Val1918GlufsTer87) and a homozygous variant in FLG (FLG: NM_002016.2:c.7339C>T: NP_002007.1; p.(Arg2447X) were detected in families A and D, respectively. Further, we determined the deleteriousness of each variant through computational approaches. The present study expands the phenotypic and genetic spectrum of NDD-associated genes (KPTN, MINPP1, NGLY1, and AP4B1). Moreover, additional nonsense variants (SON: c.5753_5756del and FLG: c.7339C>T) identified in two families segregating with the phenotype might explain the phenotypic variability and severity in our patients.

The clinical profile of intellectually disabled children in pediatric OPD at tertiary care center in Jaipur, Rajasthan, West India

Background: Intellectual disability (ID) is a global public health concern. Prevalence of ID and its association with age and other demographic factors is required for planning purpose in India. Psychiatric disorders are ubiquitous and affect not only adults but children and adolescents too. Also the age factor plays an important role in pattern of this psychiatric disorder. The objective of following is to study the clinical profile of intellectually disabled children in the study sample and prevalence of ID and its association with sex, age and other demographic factors. Materials and Methods: A total of 180 patients diagnosed as ID were included in this study from feburary-2104 to November-2018 record of patients visiting paediatric outdoor. Sex, age and living area were evaluated for each child. IQ was assessed by Seguin form board test (SFBT), Gesell’s Drawing Test (GDT), Coloured Progressive Matrices test and Standard Progressive Matrices test and adaptive skills by Vineland Social Maturity Scale. IQ was assessed by the clinical psychologist. Results: The prevalence of ID was 154 of the total disabilities recorded. Prevalence of ID with mild and moderate grade was higher among urban area (p=0.001) whereas case diagnosed as severe ID were more in rural area. Out of 154 patients 84% patients had significant co morbidity. The prevalence of mild & moderate grade ID was more with other group of disease (p=0.004) as compared to cases with cerebral palsy and ADHD. No notable sex difference was seen. Conclusion: Proper assessment centres for children with ID should be developed. Proper awareness, referral system, resources availability and regular follow up should be included in protocol management of ID. Provision for psycho-education for parents, teachers, society members must be a part of management protocol. Keywords: ID-Intellectual disabilities, Prevalence, IQ-Intelligent quotient, Psychiatric morbidity.

To assess the effect of blood transfusion and chelation therapy on growth and development of transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia patients in a rural setting of central India

Background: Beta-thalassemia major is one of the most severe life-long transfusion-dependent anemias. Clinical features vary from those due to disease itself to those due to consequences of transfusions or chelation therapy, especially affecting the growth and development of these patients. Method: A total 37 patients (aged 2 years to 15 years) were included for this cross sectional study to assess the effect of transfusion and chelation therapy on growth and development of transfusion-dependent beta-thalassemia patients (TDT) in a rural setting of central India. Data and blood reports were collected from January 2019 and was analyzed using SPSS v 22.0 applying non-parametric Man-Whitney U test and Chi Square test for independence of attributes. Findings: Only 5 (13.5%) were adequately transfused maintaining pre-blood transfusion hemoglobin level ≥9gm% and all of them did not have growth retardation. A total 29 patients were under chelation therapy, and 28 (96.55%) were found to have serum ferritin level ≥1000mg/dl. Growth retardation was diagnosed among 17 (45.94%) of the patients, whereas a range of 5-12% of them were having Intelligence Quotient (IQ) or Social Quotient (SQ) <80% as assessed by Seguin form board test, Draw-a-man Test and Vineland Social Maturity Scale. 7 out of 17 patients who were below 6 years of age, were diagnosed as suspects by Denver Developmental Screening tool. Conclusion: A significant number of transfusion-dependent Beta-thalassemia patients were having inadequate transfusion and chelation therapy which affect their growth and development variably (positively corelated if P

Development of spatial thinking abilities in engineering 3D modeling course aimed at lower secondary students

Spatial visualization ability is an important factor in a child’s cognitive development. Its development is affected by numerous factors such as general intelligence, problem-solving skills, gender, playing building games, experience with engineering drawing and 3D modelling, etc. The study aimed to explore how engineering 3D modelling with SketchUp computer programme affects the development of students’ spatial thinking and visualization in consideration of previous experience with 3D modelling and students’ grades in Technics and Technology. The study included 166 11–14-year-old students who were assigned to an experimental and a control group. A pre-and post-test were applied for initial and final testing. To test students’ spatial visualization abilities, an experimental tool with the following elements was assembled: Picture Rotation Test, Form Board Test, The Punched Holes Test, Differential Aptitude Test: Space Relations, The Surface Development Test, Mental Rotation Test, Purdue Spatial Visualization Test: Rotations. The experimental group was included in 30-h training in 3D modelling with SketchUp. The results have shown an excellent response of students in the experimental group to the training and confirmed the expectations concerning the improvement of spatial visualization abilities of these students irrespective of their previous experience and school grades in Technics and Technology. The study has shown that introducing spatial modelling with SketchUp in early technics and technology education enables more effective development and improvement of children’s spatial visualization ability skills.

Spatial abilities training in the field of technical skills in health care: A systematic review

ObjectiveTo conduct a systematic review of the effect of interventions on spatial abilities in the field of technical skills in health care. MethodsA literature search was conducted up to November 14, 2017 in Scopus and in several databases on EBSCOhost platform. Citations were obtained, articles related to retained citations were reviewed and a final list of included studies was identified. Methods in the field of technical skills relating an intervention to spatial abilities test scores between intervention groups or obtained before and after the intervention were identified as eligible. The quality of included studies was assessed and data were extracted in a systematic way. ResultsA series of 5513 citations was obtained. Ninety-nine articles were retained and fully reviewed, yielding four included studies. No difference in the Hidden Figure Test score after one year was observed after residency training in General Surgery of at least nine months. A first-year dental curriculum was not found to elevate the Novel Object Cross-Sections Test score (P = 0.07). A two-semester learning period of abdominal sonography was found to increase the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test score (P < 0.05). A hands-on radiology course using interactive three-dimensional image post-processing software consisting of seven two-hour long seminars on a weekly basis was found to amplify the Cube Perspective Test score (P < 0.001). ConclusionSpatial abilities tests scores were enhanced by courses in abdominal sonography and hands-on radiology, but were not improved by residency training in General Surgery and first-year dental curriculum.

Study on Cause-Effect Relationship of Antenatal Maternal Emotional State with Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neuro developmental disorders (NDDs) include developmental brain dysfunction, which can manifest as neuropsychiatric problems or impaired motor function, learning, language or non-verbal communication i.e. intellectual disability, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, communication disorders, epilepsy, emotional disorders, etc. This study wants to throw light on the fact that mother and fetus are one entity and whatever affects the mother will affect the child. The aim of the study is to find the cause-effect relationship of antenatal maternal emotional state with neurodevelopmental disorders. A sample of 60 cases was obtained with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) which had a stressful antenatal maternal emotional history. Proper diagnostic tools such as Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic parent rating scale, Screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED), developmental screening test (DST), Vinland social maturity scale (VSMS) and basic IQ tests like draw a man test, gazelle drawing, Seguine Form Board (SFB) test, etc. were used for the specific diagnosis of each NDD. Details regarding the antenatal history were elicited such as family stressors, financial problems, interpersonal relationships and any other stressful events. Not only the stressful event/situation but also the type of response/emotions given by the mother during pregnancy period was elicited. The most common emotion causing NDDs was anxiety/worry/fear in the antenatal period and was about 41.66%. In most cases there was intermingling of different emotions also. According to the study, the commonest cause for such negative emotions during pregnancy for the mother was found to be because of the problems created by the alcoholic husband and this cause was identified in almost 25 cases i.e., 41.66%. Intellectual disability and ADHD were found to be the most common outcome. Homoeopathy is one of the best therapeutic modalities in promoting emotional healing and also in helping the process of holistic child development.

Comparative Efficacy of Structured Games and Behavioural Parent Training on Working Memory in Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Pilot Study

Introduction: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may develop during the preschool years of the child and extend into adulthood. ADHD also leads to impaired Working Memory (WM) creating problems in various functions. Aim: To compare the effectiveness of behavioural parent training and structured games on WM of children with ADHD. Materials and Methods: This prospective interventional study was conducted in 18 schools of Ghaziabad City, Uttar Pradesh, India. Seventy subjects were selected based on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV (DSM-IV) criteria. Group A (n=35) received structured games and Group B (n=35) received Behavioural Parent Training (BPT). Seguin Form Board Test Time (SFBTT) was recorded as outcome on baseline and 5th week. Student’s paired and unpaired t-test was done. SPSS 22.0 version was the software used and p&lt;0.05 was considered as level of significance. Results: Analysed data showed significant results within structured games group with t=2.355, p&lt;0.05, and no significant result within BPT group with t=-0.776, p&gt;0.05. Between group comparison showed significant difference with t=-2.804, p&lt;0.05. Conclusion: Training of WM in form of structured games can be an effective method when compared to BPT in children with ADHD.

Effect of Interventions on Spatial Abilities in the Field of Technical Skills in Health Care: A Systematic Review

ObjectiveSpatial abilities have been correlated to anatomy knowledge assessment using practical examinations, 3D‐synthesis from 2D‐views, drawing of views, and cross‐sections in a previous systematic review. Spatial abilities have also been correlated in a systematic review to technical skills performance in health care in novices and intermediate learners. Evidence has been found for improvement of spatial abilities in the field of anatomy education using instruction in anatomy and mental rotations training in a systematic review. The objective of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the effect of interventions on spatial abilities in the field of technical skills in health care.MethodsA literature search was conducted up to November 14, 2017 in Scopus and in several databases on EBSCOhost platform (Medline with Full Text, Cinahl Plus with Full Text, ERIC, Education Source and PsycInfo). Citations were obtained, articles related to retained citations were reviewed and a final list of included studies was identified. Methods in the field of technical skills relating an intervention to spatial abilities test scores between intervention groups or obtained before and after the intervention were identified as eligible. The quality of included studies was assessed and data were extracted in a systematic way.ResultsA series of 5513 citations was obtained. Ninety‐nine articles were retained and fully reviewed, yielding four included studies. A two‐semester learning period of abdominal sonography was found to increase the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test score (p &lt; 0.05). No difference in the Hidden Figure Test score after one year was observed after residency training in General Surgery of at least nine months. A first‐year dental curriculum was not found to elevate the Novel Object Cross‐Sections Test score (p = 0.07). A hands‐on radiology course using interactive three‐dimensional image post‐processing software consisting of seven two‐hour long seminars on a weekly basis was found to amplify the Cube Perspective Test score (p &lt; 0.001). A meta‐analysis was not possible because of inconsistent reporting of statistical results for spatial abilities test score.ConclusionSpatial abilities tests scores were enhanced by courses in sonography and hands‐on radiology, but were not improved by residency training in General Surgery and first‐year dental curriculum. Enhancements of spatial abilities in the field of technical skills in health care found in this study were similar to those observed in the field of anatomy education using instruction in anatomy. Specific courses will need to be compared in the future to general curriculum for the malleability of spatial abilities. Instruction in anatomy and courses of technical skills will also need to be compared as related to spatial abilities.Support or Funding InformationFunding source: noneThis abstract is from the Experimental Biology 2019 Meeting. There is no full text article associated with this abstract published in The FASEB Journal.

Does Proprioception Influence Human Spatial Cognition? A Study on Individuals With Massive Deafferentation.

When navigating in a spatial environment or when hearing its description, we can develop a mental model which may be represented in the central nervous system in different coordinate systems such as an egocentric or allocentric reference frame. The way in which sensory experience influences the preferred reference frame has been studied with a particular interest for the role of vision. The present study investigated the influence of proprioception on human spatial cognition. To do so, we compared the abilities to form spatial models of two rare participants chronically deprived of proprioception (GL and IW) and healthy control participants. Participants listened to verbal descriptions of a spatial environment, and their ability to form and use a mental model was assessed with a distance-comparison task and a free-recall task. Given that the loss of proprioception has been suggested to specifically impair the egocentric reference frame, the deafferented individuals were expected to perform worse than controls when the spatial environment was described in an egocentric reference frame. Results revealed that in both tasks, one deafferented individual (GL) made more errors than controls while the other (IW) made less errors. On average, both GL and IW were slower to respond than controls, and reaction time was more variable for IW. Additionally, we found that GL but not IW was impaired compared to controls in visuo-spatial imagery, which was assessed with the Minnesota Paper Form Board Test. Overall, the main finding of this study is that proprioception can influence the time necessary to use spatial representations while other factors such as visuo-spatial abilities can influence the capacity to form accurate spatial representations.

A Pilot Study of Correlation between Intelligence Quotient, Social Quotient, and Ayurveda Parameters in Children.

Background:Intelligence quotient (IQ) and social quotient (SQ) are comparable in predicting intelligence status. The latter is assessed whenever IQ testing is not possible. According to Ayurveda, Buddhi (intelligence) is affected by Prakriti (body constitution) which depends on the predominance of Tridosha and Triguna. There is a paucity of studies to examine their association. The study was designed to examine correlation among IQ, SQ, performance quotient (PQ) and maladaptive behaviour; and to find out their relationship with primary (Anubandhya) and secondary (Anubandha) doshas with intelligence in children with mild to moderate intellectual disability.Methodology:Children (n = 120) were recruited from outpatient department of a tertiary care hospital as part of a clinical trial of a novel Ayurveda formulation. Stanford Binet Scale, Vineland Social Maturity Scale, Seguin Form Board Test, and Maladaptive Behavior Schedule-II were administered. Ayurvedic parameters were assessed clinically by Ayurveda practitioner. Separate regression analyses were carried out to look for associations.Results:IQ and SQ were positively correlated (P = 0.01). Maladaptive behavior and SQ were negatively correlated (0.05). SQ was associated with secondary dosha (P = 0.002) and stage of disease (Roga Kriyakala) (P = 0.015). IQ was also associated with secondary dosha (P = 0.008).Conclusion:SQ and IQ are positively correlated. The correlation of Anubandha (secondary) dosha was high on IQ and SQ.

Seguin Form Board as an intelligence tool for young children in an Indian urban slum

Objective The present study evaluates the concurrent and predictive validity of the Seguin Form Board Test (SFBT) as an intelligence tool for children in low- and middle-income countries. Methods In a cohort of normal children, followed up in South India, two cross-sectional analyses were done at 3 and 7 years of age on 95 children. The SFBT and Vineland Social Maturity Scale (VSMS) were done at 3 years of age and Malin’s Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC) and the VSMS were done at 7 years of age, and the results were compared for concurrent and predictive validity for the SFBT. Results Intelligence quotient and social quotient had positive correlations at 3 years of age, indicating fair concurrent validity. The SFBT done at around 3 years of age had good positive correlation with MISIC at 7 years of age, indicating good predictive validity. Conclusion This study shows the utility of the SFBT as a community-based intelligence tool with acceptable concurrent and predictive validity.

The effect of cartoon on the immediate motor executive function of 4-6 year old children

Background: Children’s television viewing has been of concern to parents, educators and health care providers for almost as long as the television itself has been in existence. Objective of present study was to investigate the effect of cartoon viewing on the immediate motor executive function of 4-6 year old children.Methods: 279 children, aged 4-6 year old children were administered the Seguin Form board test to confirm they were all developmentally equal. These children were then randomly assigned to watch a fast paced television cartoon, a slow paced cartoon or colour an image. Following this they were then given 3 tasks to assess motor executive function, including the colour match, 4 two piece puzzle and separating coloured beads. The time taken to complete the task was noted and the data was analyzed.Results: Children who watched the fast-paced cartoon performed slower on the motor executive function tasks than the children in the other two groups. (p&lt;0.001).Conclusions: Even ten minutes of viewing a fast paced television cartoon had immediate negative effects on 4-6 year old children’s motor executive function. Parents should be aware that fast paced cartoon shows could at least temporarily impair young children’s motor executive function.

Prevalence of Principles of Piaget's Theory Among 4-7-year-old Children and their Correlation with IQ.

Cognitive development is a major area of human development and was extensively studied by Jean Piaget. He proposed that the development of intellectual abilities occurs in a series of relatively distinct stages and that a child's way of thinking and viewing the world is different at different stages. To assess Piaget's principles of the intuitive stage of preoperational period among 4-7-year-old children relative to their Intelligence quotient (IQ). Various characteristics as described by Jean Piaget specific for the age group of 4-7 years along with those of the previous (preconceptual stage of preoperational period) and successive periods (concrete operations) were analysed using various experiments in 300 children. These characteristics included the concepts of perceptual and cognitive egocentrism, centration and reversibility. IQ of the children was measured using Seguin form board test. Inferential statistics were performed using Chi-square test and Kruskal Wallis test. The level of statistical significance was set at 0.05. The prevalence of perceptual and cognitive egocentrism was 10.7% and 31.7% based on the experiments and 33% based on the interview question. Centration was present in 96.3% of the children. About 99% children lacked the concept of reversibility according to the clay experiment while 97.7% possessed this concept according to the interview question. The mean IQ score of children who possessed perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting was significantly higher than those who lacked these characteristics. Perceptual egocentrism had almost disappeared and prevalence of cognitive egocentrism decreased with increase in age. Centration and lack of reversibility were appreciated in most of the children. There was a gradual reduction in the prevalence of these characters with increasing age. Mean IQ score of children who possessed perceptual egocentrism, cognitive egocentrism and egocentrism in dental setting was higher.

Neuropsychiatric manifestation of celiac disease: A case-control study in North India

Background: Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated disease dependent on gluten. Prevalence of CD is about 1% and beside gastrointestinal complaints, neuropsychiatric symptoms may represent an atypical feature of CD. Some studies suggest that a gluten-free diet is effective in treating them. Settings and Design: This case-control study of 49 cases was done during the period of January to March 2013. Aim: To know the spectrum of psychiatric manifestations and cognitive functions in children with CD. Materials and Methods: We took 49 diagnosed cases of CD (based on the demonstration of IgA tissue transglutaminase antibodies and duodenal biopsy) and compared with demographically matched control group ( n = 50) on Seguin Form Board Test for cognitive functions and Behavioral Summarized Evaluation-Revised scale for assessment of psychiatric and behavior disturbances. All possible psychiatric diagnosis was made on the basis of International Statistical Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems-Tenth Revision criteria. Statistical Analysis: Statistical analyses were done by using Chi-square test and two-tailed P -values. Results: Neuropsychiatric manifestations were seen in 29% of cases as against 4% of controls which was statistically significant ( P =0.001). Only four cases and 1 control fount to be mild mental retardation ( P = 0.16). Autism, dyslexia, developmental delay, disruptive behavior disorder, and tic disorder present in cases were not found. Conclusion: Clinical manifestations of CD vary from typical malabsorption syndrome to neuropsychiatric manifestations. Those psychiatric patients who are not responding to standard pharmacological modalities, a diagnosis of CD should be taken into consideration. Only behavioral problem can be the sole clinical manifestation of CD.

Assessment of intelligence quotient among schoolchildren of fishermen community of Kutch, Gujarat, India.

The aim of the study was to assess the intelligence quotient of fishermen school children of Kutch, Gujarat, India. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 8 to 10 years old school children living in Kutch District, Gujarat, India, from January to February 2013. Seguin Form Board Test was used to assess the intelligence quotient (IQ) level of children. Means of groups were compared by independent student t-test. Stepwise multiple linear regression was used to identify predictors for IQ. The mean average timing taken by fishermen school children to complete the test was 30.64 ± 4.97. Males had significantly lower mean timing scores than females (p < 0.05). Participants with severe dental fluorosis, low socio-economic status (SES), lower education level of both mother and father and those who were overweight had significantly higher mean timing scores for average category. The present study suggested a low IQ among fishermen school children community of Kutch, Gujarat, India. The major factors which influenced their IQ were dental fluorosis, low SES, low education level of parents and high body mass index.

Response Letter to the Article: “Prevalence of Specific Learning Disabilities Among Primary School Children in a South Indian City”

Sir,We read with interest the original article by Mogasale et al. on“Prevalence of Specific Learning Disabilities among PrimarySchool Children in a South Indian City” [1]. We acknowledgethat the authors have addressed an important issue. Howeverwe have four objections about the methodology employed bythe authors to estimate the prevalence of specific learningdisabilities (SpLDs) in their study. Our objections are as under:Firstly, during screening levels 2 and 3, the authors haveexcluded all children with impaired vision and impairedhearing. Only children having ≥40 % non-correctable visualor auditory disability should have been excluded [2]. It iswell known that a child with SpLDs can have impairedvision and/or impaired hearing as a co-morbid condition.Secondly, during screening level 5, children’s intellec-tual functioning was determined using the Seguin FormBoard test. This is a simple screening test wherein thechild has to put ten differently shaped wooden blocksinto a large form board with recesses corresponding tothese shapes in a specified time limit. It is used to assessvisual discrimination and matching and eye-hand coordi-nation and is an inappropriate test for this study. In ouropinion the authors should have employed the standardintelligence test viz., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Chil-dren test (Indian adaptation) to determine that the child’sintellectual functioning was normal [2].Thirdly, during screening level 6, the educational testingof the children was done by a Pediatric PostgraduateStudent. It is mandatory that a qualified Special Educator(M.Ed. in Special Education) does the educational testingfor diagnosing SpLDs [2,3].Lastly, there is no mention of any attempt done to screenfor or diagnose attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) in the study. Many children with ADHD developpoor school performance due to their hyperactivity, impul-siveness and/or inattention. It is well known that up to 20 %of children with ADHD have co-morbid SpLDs [4].To conclude, we do not agree with the results of the studyand the authors’ naive claim that SpLDs can be diagnosedwithout using a standard psychological test or withoutemploying the services of a Special Educator.

Exploratory Study of the Relations between Spatial Ability and Drawing from Memory

Test scores of 119 students, attending either a public four-year college or a technical school, were related to their proportionality and detail drawing scores on the Memory for Designs Test. In regression models, the ETS Maze Tracing, Eliot-Price Mental Rotations, and Bender-Gestalt tests were consistent predictors of proportionality scores, with the latter two tests uniquely related to these. The ETS Shapes Memory Test and the Form Board Test were the strongest predictors for detail accuracy scores. The Shapes test predicted proportionality when the CTY Visual Memory Test BB was excluded. The models then provided support for the hypothesis that drawing designs from memory, a critical skill in drawing, regardless of whether one focuses on accuracy for proportionality scores or for detail scores, is jointly related to the measures of recognition, production, and traditional spatial ability measures. This study identified multifaceted skills in drawing from memory.

Effect of cryptosporidial and giardial diarrhoea on social maturity, intelligence and physical growth in children in a semi-urban slum in south India

Early childhood diarrhoea is a major cause of infant morbidity and mortality in developing countries. Recurrent and persistent diarrhoea affect growth and cognition in children as young as 6 years. To evaluate the effect of early childhood cryptosporidial and giardial diarrhoea on growth and development in children in a semi-urban slum in India. This is the first report of such assessment at 3 years of age. This study was undertaken on 116 children who were part of an ongoing birth cohort study (n=452) of rotaviral and cryptosporidial diarrhoea between June and December 2005. Social quotients (SQ) assessed by the Vineland Social Maturity Scale, intelligence quotients (IQ) assessed by the Seguin Form Board Test, physical growth parameters and sociodemographic data in 84 children with a history of cryptosporidial or giardial diarrhoea were compared with those of 32 without diarrhoea. Children with a past history of giardial diarrhoea showed a trend towards lower SQ (p=0.09) and had significantly lower IQ (p=0.04) and increased wasting (p=0.04). Cryptosporidial diarrhoea was not associated with poor IQ, SQ or physical growth. This study demonstrates the long-term effect of protozoan diarrhoea, especially that caused by giardia, on both intelligence and physical growth in Indian children as early as 3 years of age and re-inforces the need for early detection and prevention of early childhood protozoan diarrhoea.

Individual Differences in Spatial Mental Imagery

In this article, we report a new image-scanning paradigm that allowed us to measure objectively individual differences in spatial mental imagery--specifically, imagery for location. Participants were asked to determine whether an arrow was pointing at a dot using a visual mental image of an array of dots. The degree of precision required to discriminate "yes" from "no" trials was varied. In Experiment 1, the time to scan increasing distances, as well as the number of errors, increased when greater precision was required to make a judgement. The results in Experiment 2 replicated those results while controlling for possible biases. When greater precision is required, the accuracy of the spatial image becomes increasingly important--and hence the effect of precision in the task reflects the accuracy of the image. In Experiment 3, this measure was shown to be related to scores on the Paper Folding test, on the Paper Form Board test, and on the visuospatial items on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices--but not to scores on questionnaires measuring object-based mental imagery. Thus, we provide evidence that classical standardized spatial tests rely on spatial mental imagery but not object mental imagery.

Cognitive process modeling of spatial ability: The assembling objects task

Spatial ability tasks appear on many intelligence and aptitude tests. Although the construct validity of spatial ability tests has often been studied through traditional correlational methods, such as factor analysis, less is known about the cognitive processes involved in solving test items. This study examines the cognitive processes involved in the assembling objects task found on the Revised Minnesota Paper Form Board Test (RMPFBT), a spatial task in which a test taker must mentally assemble two-dimensional objects. A two-part study was conducted to examine the construct validity of these items and to explain how test takers solve assembling objects tasks. The first part of the study used quantitative methods to examine the contribution of item characteristics to the difficulty of the item and the response time necessary to solve the item. The second part of the study utilized an eye-tracking device to qualitatively examine the steps examinees follow to solve these items. As a result of the second part of this study, a new cognitive processing model is proposed.