Formation Of Flavor Compounds Research Articles

Nonstarter lactic acid bacteria volatilomes produced using cheese components

In long-ripened cheese, flavor formation occurs during ripening. The metabolism of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) leads to the production of different compounds that contribute to the flavor of cheese. The contribution of LAB to the formation of cheese flavor has previously been studied. However, the specific nonstarter LAB (NSLAB) metabolic reactions in ripened cheese that lead to the formation of flavor compounds remain unclear. In ripened cheese, the nutrient sources available include small peptides or amino acids, citrate, lactate, free fatty acids, and starter LAB cell lysis products. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of NSLAB to produce volatile flavor compounds by using an in vitro system that used only the nutrients available in ripened cheese as the energy source. Moreover, the potential contribution of the NSLAB volatilome on total cheese flavor is discussed. For this purpose, the production of volatile compounds on cheese-based medium (CBM) and on starter LAB lysed cell medium (LCM) by 2 Lactobacillus casei and 2 Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains, previously isolated from ripened Parmigiano Reggiano cheese, was investigated. The generated volatile compounds were analyzed with head-space gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Overall, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, and acids were the most abundant compounds produced. Differences in volatilome production were found between NSLAB grown in LCM and CBM. The catabolic metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids were required for NSLAB growth on LCM. Conversely, pyruvate metabolism was the main catabolic pathway that supported growth of NSLAB in CBM. This study can be considered a first step toward a better understanding of how microbiota involved in the long ripening of cheese may contribute to the development of cheese flavor.

Looking into individual coffee beans during the roasting process: direct micro-probe sampling on-line photo-ionisation mass spectrometric analysis of coffee roasting gases

A micro-probe (μ-probe) gas sampling device for on-line analysis of gases evolving in confined, small objects by single-photon ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SPI-TOFMS) was developed. The technique is applied for the first time in a feasibility study to record the formation of volatile and flavour compounds during the roasting process within (inside) or in the direct vicinity (outside) of individual coffee beans. A real-time on-line analysis of evolving volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds (VOC and SVOC) as they are formed under the mild pyrolytic conditions of the roasting process was performed. The soft-ionisation mass spectra depict a molecular ion signature, which is well corresponding with the existing knowledge of coffee roasting and evolving compounds. Additionally, thereby it is possible to discriminate between Coffea arabica (Arabica) and Coffea canephora (Robusta). The recognized differences in the roasting gas profiles reflect the differences in the precursor composition of the coffee cultivars very well. Furthermore, a well-known set of marker compounds for Arabica and Robusta, namely the lipids kahweol and cafestol (detected in their dehydrated form at m/z 296 and m/z 298, respectively) were observed. If the variation in time of different compounds is observed, distinctly different evolution behaviours were detected. Here, phenol (m/z 94) and caffeine (m/z 194) are exemplary chosen, whereas phenol shows very sharp emission peaks, caffeine do not have this highly transient behaviour. Finally, the changes of the chemical signature as a function of the roasting time, the influence of sampling position (inside, outside) and cultivar (Arabica, Robusta) is investigated by multivariate statistics (PCA). In summary, this pilot study demonstrates the high potential of the measurement technique to enhance the fundamental knowledge of the formation processes of volatile and semi-volatile flavour compounds inside the individual coffee bean.

Effect of oxygen on the biosynthesis of flavor compound 3-methylbutanal from leucine catabolism during batch culture in Carnobacterium maltaromaticum LMA 28

In this study, we demonstrated the effect of different dissolved oxygen concentrations (DOC) on cell growth and intracellular biosynthesis of 3-methylbutanal from leucine catabolism in Carnobacterium maltaromaticum LMA 28 during batch culture. The maximum specific growth rate was obtained in culture when DOC was controlled at 50% of air saturation. The specific consumption rates of glucose and specific production rates of lactate were higher at a DOC at 50 or 90% of air saturation. Carnobacterium maltaromaticum LMA 28 produced high quantities of 3-methylbutanal and 3-methylbutanol during culture with DOC maintained at 90%, suggesting that oxygen had a significant effect of the formation of these flavor compounds. This high formation of flavor compounds in an oxygen-rich environment was attributed to the simultaneous activation and stimulation of both α-ketoacid decarboxylase (KADC) and α-ketoacid dehydrogenase (KADH) pathways. Thus, intracellular biosynthesis of 3-methylbutanal can be controlled by modifying the DOC of the culture or food product during fermentation.

Co-culturing of Pichia guilliermondii enhanced volatile flavor compound formation by Zygosaccharomyces rouxii in the model system of Thai soy sauce fermentation

The roles of salt-tolerant yeasts such as Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, Candida versatilis, and Candida etchellsii in the production of volatile flavor compounds (VFCs) in soy sauce fermentation have been well documented. However, the knowledge of VFC production by other salt-tolerant yeasts is still limited. In this work, the roles of Z. rouxii and Pichia guilliermondii strains in VFC production were investigated in moromi medium as a model system for soy sauce fermentation. Inoculation of a single culture of either Z. rouxii or P. guilliermondii as well as co-cultures of these two yeasts into moromi medium showed increased numbers of viable yeast at around 0.7 to 1.9 log CFU/mL after 7days of cultivation at 30°C. During cultivation, both single and co-cultures displayed survival over a 7-day time period, compared with the controls (no culture added). Overall, yeast inoculation enhanced the production of VFCs in the moromi media with higher amounts of ethanol, alcohols, furanones, esters, aldehyde, acid, pyrone and phenols, known as important characteristic flavor compounds in soy sauce. Moreover, the co-culture produced more alcohols, furanones, esters, maltol and benzoic acid than the single culture of Z. rouxii.

A Temporal -omic Study of Propionibacterium freudenreichii CIRM-BIA1T Adaptation Strategies in Conditions Mimicking Cheese Ripening in the Cold

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is used as a ripening culture in Swiss cheese manufacture. It grows when cheeses are ripened in a warm room (about 24°C). Cheeses with an acceptable eye formation level are transferred to a cold room (about 4°C), inducing a marked slowdown of propionic fermentation, but P. freudenreichii remains active in the cold. To investigate the P. freudenreichii strategies of adaptation and survival in the cold, we performed the first global gene expression profile for this species. The time-course transcriptomic response of P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA1T strain was analyzed at five times of incubation, during growth at 30°C then for 9 days at 4°C, under conditions preventing nutrient starvation. Gene expression was also confirmed by RT-qPCR for 28 genes. In addition, proteomic experiments were carried out and the main metabolites were quantified. Microarray analysis revealed that 565 genes (25% of the protein-coding sequences of P. freudenreichii genome) were differentially expressed during transition from 30°C to 4°C (P<0.05 and |fold change|>1). At 4°C, a general slowing down was observed for genes implicated in the cell machinery. On the contrary, P. freudenreichii CIRM-BIA1T strain over-expressed genes involved in lactate, alanine and serine conversion to pyruvate, in gluconeogenesis, and in glycogen synthesis. Interestingly, the expression of different genes involved in the formation of important cheese flavor compounds, remained unchanged at 4°C. This could explain the contribution of P. freudenreichii to cheese ripening even in the cold. In conclusion, P. freudenreichii remains metabolically active at 4°C and induces pathways to maintain its long-term survival.

The role of the Maillard reaction in the formation of flavour compounds in dairy products – not only a deleterious reaction but also a rich source of flavour compounds

Dairy products are heated both during processing and by consumers during food preparation; consumers place a high level of importance on flavour when assessing product acceptability. Of particular importance to the flavour of heated dairy products is the highly complex network of Maillard reactions. Much focus has been placed on the undesirable flavours generated through the Maillard reaction and how to minimise the formation of these flavours. However, beneficial flavours can also be formed by the Maillard reaction; dairy products, such as ghee, are formed by heating and are characterised by the unique flavour generated by this chemistry. This review looks at the Maillard reaction as a source of beneficial flavours for cooked dairy products and the application of models to the study of flavour formation in food systems. Models are typically used to study complex reactions in a simplified way; however, they are not always applicable to food systems.

Effect of Roasting Process on the Concentration of Acrylamide and Pyrizines in Roasted Cocoa Beans from Different Origins

Roasting is an important process that contributes to the formation of flavour compounds in cocoa beans. Pyrazines, by- products of Maillard reaction are the character impact compounds that contribute to its unique cocoa flavour. Unfortunately during roasting, carcinogenic acrylamide is also produced through the same Maillard reaction. This study was carried out to determine the concentration of acrylamide and pyrazines in different origin of cocoa beans roasted at 116°C and time of 23min. Papua New Guinea cocoa beans contained significantly (p<0.05) the highest concentration of acrylamide (0.32mg/100g) and the lowest was cocoa beans from Cameroon(0.11mg/100g). In this study, superior quality Ivory Coast cocoa beans can be produced with this roasting conditions; high pyrazines (2-methylpyrazine, 2,5- dimethylpyrazine, 2,3,5-trimethylpyrazine and 2,3,5,6-tetrapyrazine) with low acrylamide concentration (0.23mg/100g).

Characterization of Lactococcus strains and their using in dairy technology

Lactococcus lactis species is one of the most important groups of lactic acid bacteria that are used in the dairy industry. Lactococci are generally found on plants and the skins of animals. Special interest is placed on the study of Lactococcus lactis ssp. lactis and Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris, as they are the strains used as starter cultures in industrial dairy fermentation. The major functions of this species in dairy fermentation are the production of lactic acid, formation of flavour and aroma compounds, development of ripened cheese texture and antimicrobial activity against spoilage bacteria and moulds.

Formation of Volatile Sulfur-Containing Compounds by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Soymilk Supplemented with L-methionine

The formation of volatile sulfur-containing flavor compounds from L-methionine catabolism by Saccharomyces cerevisiae EC-1118 was investigated in soymilk supplemented with this sulfur-containing amino acid with a focus on methionol (3-methylthio-1-propanol). Methionol produced from L-methionine metabolism of yeast in soymilk was extracted by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The effects of time (0 – 72 h), L-methionine concentration (0.05–0.20%), yeast extract concentration (0.00–0.30%), initial medium pH (4.5–6.9), and temperature (25–34°C) on the production of methionol were investigated. One-liter scale-up fermentation of soymilk by Saccharomyces cerevisiae EC-1118 was conducted for 48 h under static conditions with 0.15% of L-methionine, 0.10% of yeast extract, initial medium pH of 5.5, and temperature of 25°C, yielding 190 ppm of methionol. GC-olfactometry dilution analysis was conducted on extracts of the fermented soymilk, and no single compound was found to account for the overall odor perception. Methional (3-methylthio-1-propanal) and methionol were determined to be most potent odor-active compounds in the fermented soymilk. The fermented soy milk may serve as a complex sulfur flavor concentrate for applications in foods such as fermented soy products, enzyme-modified, and imitation cheeses.

Daqu- A Traditional Chinese Liquor Fermentation Starter

Chinese liquor is one of the world's oldest distilled alcoholic beverages, and it is typically obtained with the use of Daqu fermentation starters. Daqu is a saccharifying and fermenting agent, having a significant impact on the flavour of the product. Daqu can be categorized according to maximum incubation temperatures (high, medium and low) and flavour (sauce, strong, light and miscellaneous). Most Daqu are prepared by solid-state fermentation from wheat, barley and/or peas with ingredient formulation, grinding and mixing, shaping, incubation and maturation. Although there is a wealth of artisanal experience in the production of a range of different types of Daqu, the scientific knowledge base—including the microbiota, their enzymes and their metabolic activities—needs further development. Daqu as a specific alcoholic starter is compared with other Asian amylolytic fermentation starters in terms of microbial diversity and function. Filamentous fungi (Rhizopus, Rhizomucor, Aspergillus and other genera), yeasts (Saccharomyces, Candida, Hansenula and other genera) and bacteria (acetic acid bacteria, lactic acid bacteria and Bacillus spp.), are considered to be the functional microbiota, responsible for the formation of a range of lytic enzymes, formation of substrates for alcoholic fermentation and formation of flavour compounds. However, the knowledge about the microbiota composition and their function is still fragmentary information, so further research is required to establish the functionality and growth kinetics of the microbiota in diverse types of Daqu.

The Complete Genome of Propionibacterium freudenreichii CIRM-BIA1T, a Hardy Actinobacterium with Food and Probiotic Applications

Background Propionibacterium freudenreichii is essential as a ripening culture in Swiss-type cheeses and is also considered for its probiotic use [1]. This species exhibits slow growth, low nutritional requirements, and hardiness in many habitats. It belongs to the taxonomic group of dairy propionibacteria, in contrast to the cutaneous species P. acnes. The genome of the type strain, P. freudenreichii subsp. shermanii CIRM-BIA1 (CIP 103027T), was sequenced with an 11-fold coverage.Methodology/Principal FindingsThe circular chromosome of 2.7 Mb of the CIRM-BIA1 strain has a GC-content of 67% and contains 22 different insertion sequences (3.5% of the genome in base pairs). Using a proteomic approach, 490 of the 2439 predicted proteins were confirmed. The annotation revealed the genetic basis for the hardiness of P. freudenreichii, as the bacterium possesses a complete enzymatic arsenal for de novo biosynthesis of aminoacids and vitamins (except panthotenate and biotin) as well as sequences involved in metabolism of various carbon sources, immunity against phages, duplicated chaperone genes and, interestingly, genes involved in the management of polyphosphate, glycogen and trehalose storage. The complete biosynthesis pathway for a bifidogenic compound is described, as well as a high number of surface proteins involved in interactions with the host and present in other probiotic bacteria. By comparative genomics, no pathogenicity factors found in P. acnes or in other pathogenic microbial species were identified in P. freudenreichii, which is consistent with the Generally Recognized As Safe and Qualified Presumption of Safety status of P. freudenreichii. Various pathways for formation of cheese flavor compounds were identified: the Wood-Werkman cycle for propionic acid formation, amino acid degradation pathways resulting in the formation of volatile branched chain fatty acids, and esterases involved in the formation of free fatty acids and esters.Conclusions/SignificanceWith the exception of its ability to degrade lactose, P. freudenreichii seems poorly adapted to dairy niches. This genome annotation opens up new prospects for the understanding of the P. freudenreichii probiotic activity.

Formation of Pyrazines in Maillard Model Systems of Lysine-Containing Dipeptides

Whereas most studies concerning the Maillard reaction have focused on free amino acids, little information is available on the impact of peptides and proteins on this important reaction in food chemistry. Therefore, the formation of flavor compounds from the model reactions of glucose, methylglyoxal, or glyoxal with eight dipeptides with lysine at the N-terminus was studied in comparison with the corresponding free amino acids by means of stir bar sorptive extraction (SBSE) followed by GC-MS analysis. The reaction mixtures of the dipeptides containing glucose, methylglyoxal, and glyoxal produced 27, 18, and 2 different pyrazines, respectively. Generally, the pyrazines were produced more in the case of dipeptides as compared to free amino acids. For reactions with glucose and methylglyoxal, this difference was mainly caused by the large amounts of 2,5(6)-dimethylpyrazine and trimethylpyrazine produced from the reactions with dipeptides. For reactions with glyoxal, the difference in pyrazine production was rather small and mostly unsubstituted pyrazine was formed. A reaction mechanism for pyrazine formation from dipeptides was proposed and evaluated. This study clearly illustrates the capability of peptides to produce flavor compounds that can differ from those obtained from the corresponding reactions with free amino acids.

Production of Flavour Compounds from Fat During Cheese Ripening by Action of Lipases and Esterases

The milk fat is an essential component for the development of correct flavour in cheese. The lipolysis and catabolism of fatty acids are two biochemical events very important on flavour development of some cheese varieties. The role and characteristics of various lipolytic agents during cheese ripening is reviewed and discussed. Before starting with the specific study about formation of flavour compounds from milk fat during cheese ripening, a brief review of the technological aspects of cheese production is needed.

Formation of pyrazines from ascorbic acid and amino acids under dry-roasting conditions

Although the participation of ascorbic acid in Maillard-type reactions has been described, the formation of flavour compounds resulting from the interaction of ascorbic acid with different amino acids has not been reported before. Therefore, the formation of flavour compounds from the model reactions of 20 amino acids with ascorbic acid was studied under dry-roasting conditions. Thirty-six different pyrazines were identified, mostly ethyl and methyl substituted pyrazines. The amounts of pyrazines detected were comparable to those formed from pentose sugars. Lysine was the most reactive amino acid and yielded the highest amounts of alkylpyrazines. The reducing activity of ascorbic acid influenced the reaction mechanism of pyrazine formation and thus the type of pyrazines produced. Addition of a base, such as potassium carbonate, significantly enhanced pyrazine formation from ascorbic acid for most amino acids. The formation of pyrazines from serine and threonine without a carbonyl compound was greatly enhanced by the addition of potassium carbonate as well. Furan was detected in all model systems in relatively low amounts and its formation was not enhanced by the addition of potassium carbonate.

The addition of a cocktail of yeast species to Cantalet cheese changes bacterial survival and enhances aroma compound formation

Indigenous yeasts can be detected at high populations in raw milk Cantal cheese, a French Protected Denomination of Origin (PDO) hard cheese. To investigate their use as adjunct cultures to promote flavour development in Cantalet (small Cantal) cheese, three strains isolated from raw milk Cantal cheese, Kluyveromyces lactis, Yarrowia lipolytica, and Pichia fermentans were added at 3 (E3) and 5 (E5) log 10 colony-forming units (cfu)/mL to microfiltered milk at a ratio of 80/10/10 viable cells, respectively. The global microbial, compositional and biochemical changes induced by the presence of yeasts in cheese were determined. Adjunct yeasts did not grow but stayed at viable populations of approximately 4 and 6 log 10 cfu/g in E3 and E5 cheeses, respectively, throughout the ripening period. They were mainly constituted of K. lactis, while P. fermentans and Y. lipolytica were not detectable after 3 and 45 days of ripening, respectively. Several species of indigenous yeasts were also detected in E3 cheeses at the beginning of ripening only, and in the control cheeses without yeasts added. Lactoccoci survived for longer periods in the presence of yeast adjuncts, while, conversely, the viability of Streptococcus thermophilus decreased more rapidly. The addition of yeasts did not influence cheese composition and total free amino acid content. In contrast, it slightly increased lipolysis in both E3 and E5 cheeses and markedly enhanced the formation of some volatile aroma compounds. The concentrations of ethanol, ethyl esters and some branched-chain alcohols were 6 to 10 fold higher in E5 cheeses than in the control cheeses, and only slightly higher in E3 cheeses. This study shows that K. lactis has a potential as cheese adjunct culture in Cantalet cheese and that, added at populations of 4–5 log 10 cfu/g cheese, it enhances the formation of flavour compounds.

Color, Textural Characteristics and Sensory Quality of Strawberry Puree-Substituted Kochujang during Fermentation

Quality characteristics of kochujang prepared with strawberry puree (10, 20, and 30% on a total weight basis) were investigated at 30 and 300 days of fermentation. The highest L*-value was found in 30% strawberry kochujang at 300 days of fermentation. In contrast, the highest degree of redness (a*) was observed in 30% strawberry kochujang at the early stage of fermentation. During the fermentation, values of L*, a*, and b* increased except a*-value of 30% strawberry kochujang, indicating proper substitution of strawberry puree could preserve the desired color of kochujang. After 300 days of fermentation, hardness, gumminess, and chewiness increased while adhesiveness decreased significantly (p＜0.05). Taste score and Pearson coefficient between sensory and strawberry concentration revealed that 10% strawberry kochujang was more acceptable than the others, due to color and the formation of flavor compounds during the fermentation and these compounds enhanced the flavor of kochujang.

Comparative Genomics of Enzymes in Flavor-Forming Pathways from Amino Acids in Lactic Acid Bacteria

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been widely used as starter or nonstarter cultures in the dairy industry for over a thousand years. They play an essential role in flavor formation during the fermentation of dairy products. Several metabolic routes can lead to the formation of flavor compounds when

Investigation of New Indexes to Evaluate Aging of Bottled Lager Beer

To determine the extent of lager beer staling accurately, six singlet analysis evaluation parameters were investigated, including 1,1′-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging amount, N-tert-butyl-α-phenylnitrone associated with electron spin resonance spectrometry (PBN-ESR), total reactive antioxidant potential (TRAP), thiobarbituric acid (TBA), 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (5-HMF), and trans-2-nonenal, which are based on free-radical reactions and off-flavor compound formation. The singlet indexes were well correlated with natural aging time and stale-flavor taste judgment when evaluating aging beer of the same quality. However, there was an obvious limit when assessing beer samples of different quality and different degrees of aging. These singlet indexes were combined and processed by statistical analysis and mathematical methods, and complex evaluation indexes were brought forward, which resulted in a better correlation with beer aging compared with the singlet indexes. The free-radical index (FRI) was constructed based on the reactions of free-radical scavenging, and the compound index (CI) was based on the formation of stale flavor compounds. The stability index (SI) integrated the two aspects into one evaluation index using a relatively simple formula. Over the whole course of beer aging, FRI and CI increased, while SI decreased. FRI was a better predictor when measuring the moderately staled beer, which had a natural aging time of more than 90 days (or 3 months). CI was more applicable to the extremely aged beer, which had a shelf time of more than 180 days (or 6 months). To assess the general degree of beer aging, SI is put forward as a new and efficient index for beer samples at every staling stage. The research proved that complex evaluation indexes provided more applicable parameters for evaluating beer aging. Of them, SI was the best and simplest measurement for determining the extent of lager beer aging at any staling stage compared with singlet and other complex evaluating indexes.

Influence of high-intensity pulsed electric field processing on lipoxygenase and β-glucosidase activities in strawberry juice

The influence of high-intensity pulsed electric field (HIPEF) parameters, pulse frequency, pulse width and pulse polarity in strawberry juice lipoxygenase (LOX) and β-glucosidase (β-GLUC) was studied using a response surface methodology. The studied parameters affected on both residual enzymatic activities at unchanging electric field strength of 35 kV/cm and treatment time for 1000 μs. The contour plots showed a minimum defined space where residual activity of LOX remained at 65% and 70% in monopolar and bipolar mode, respectively. Low pulse frequencies (up to 61.6 Hz) in monopolar treatments as well as pulse frequencies and widths higher than 218 Hz and 5.4 μs in bipolar treatments did not have any effect on LOX inactivation. On the other hand, the higher the pulse frequency and pulse width, the higher the β-GLUC inactivation obtained. Moreover, when the HIPEF treatment was applied in monopolar mode, an enhancement in β-GLUC activity was observed in most of the experimental range. HIPEF treatments have demonstrated adequately that can reduce activity of enzymes that are involved in the formation of desirable flavor compounds, helping processors to obtain juices that keep their fresh flavor. High-intensity pulsed electric fields (HIPEF) have proved to be effective in the interaction of microorganisms and enzymes in juices, maintaining their quality and freshness. HIPEF juice processing has demonstrated to have some advantages with regard to conventional thermal treatment. HIPEF treatments can reduce adequately enzymes that are involved in the formation of desirable flavor or color compounds. Thus, HIPEF technology can help processors to obtain juices that keep their fresh flavor by achieving optimal inactivation of related enzymes. This would prevent the product from undesirable off-flavor formation, which in turn would result in greater acceptability by consumers.

Modulating aroma compounds during wine fermentation by manipulating carnitine acetyltransferases inSaccharomyces cerevisiae

The wine yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is central in the production of aroma compounds during fermentation. Some of the most important yeast-derived aroma compounds produced are esters. The esters ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate are formed from alcohols and acetyl-CoA in a reaction catalysed by alcohol acetyltransferases. The pool of acetyl-CoA available in yeast cells could play a key role in the development of ester aromas. Carnitine acetyltransferases catalyse the reversible reaction between carnitine and acetyl-CoA to form acetylcarnitine and free CoA. This reaction is important in transferring activated acetyl groups to the mitochondria and in regulating the acetyl-CoA/CoA pools within the cell. We investigated the effect of overexpressing CAT2, which encodes the major mitochondrial and peroxisomal carnitine acetyltransferase, on the formation of esters and other flavour compounds during fermentation. We also overexpressed a modified CAT2 that results in a protein that localizes to the cytosol. In general, the overexpression of both forms of CAT2 resulted in a reduction in ester concentrations, especially in ethyl acetate and isoamyl acetate. We hypothesize that overproduction of Cat2p favours the formation of acetylcarnitine and CoA and therefore limits the precursor for ester production. Carnitine acetyltransferase expression could potentially to be used successfully in order to modulate wine flavour.