Formal Operational Stage Research Articles

The Roller Coaster Life in Teaching: The Case of Pre-service Teachers in a State University

Teachers are honed for many years to be able to teach comprehensively to diverse learners. Before achieving college diplomas, they still have to undergo practice teaching to enhance and employ content and pedagogical approaches they learned from their previous college years. This study's framework was based clearly on Jean's Piaget Formal Operational Stage and Albert Banduras' Social Cognitive Development Theory. Learners develop their critical thinking during a formal stage, promoting constructive behavior that affects an individual's success. Ten (10) elementary preservice teachers of a laboratory school were selected through the purposive sampling technique. The researcher gathered the data appropriately using in-depth semi-structured interviews, and responses were recorded and documented with confidentiality. This study's findings are the pre-service teachers' preparation stage of teaching, tangible teaching exposure, utilization of pedagogical methods and approaches, people’s unamenable behavior, vigorous school demands, financial shortage, implementation of diverse teaching strategies, possess adequate personality and seek out spiritual guidance. Results suggest that school administrators and faculty educators must provide all education students with resilient and concrete experiences. Lesson planning, various teaching strategies, and classroom management must introduce as early as possible once they step into the education portal during their first year in college before undergoing the practice teaching stage.

The Influence of Reciprocal Teaching Towards the Critical Thinking Skill Improvement of Blind Students

This study aims to determine the influence of reciprocal teaching application in improving the critical thinking skill of visually impaired student in SLB-A YKAB Surakarta on the academic of year 2019/2020. This study is classified as pre-experimental research with the form of one group pretest-posttest design. The Subjects in this study were seven students from 5th-9th grades in SLB-A YKAB Surakarta. The seven students became the research subjects after being selected using purposive sampling technique. Some subject criteria set in this study include: visually impaired student who have reached formal operational stage according to Piaget’s theory, were able to read, write, listen, and speak fluently, and have problems in developing critical thinking skills. Data collection in this study was done through observation and oral test. The instrument used in this study was validated by measurement expert, psychologist, and linguist and was tested to visually impaired students in SMP MIS Surakarta. The results of expert validation and instrument trials indicate that this instrument was valid with a validity coefficient of 0.92-1 and reliable with a reliability coefficient of 0.975. Then the instrument was used to measure the critical thinking skill of research subject before and after being given treatment through the application of reciprocal teaching. The pretest and posttest data were analyzed using non-parametric statistic with Wilcoxon Sign Rank Test type at the significance level of 0.05. According to the data analysis using SPSS 25, the Asymp. Sig (2-tailed) value was obtained of 0.017. That value was smaller than 0.05, so that H0 was rejected and Ha was accepted. Thus, the application of reciprocal teaching has a significant effect towards the critical thinking skill of visually impaired student in SLB-A YKAB Surakarta on the academic of year 2019/2020.

An Overview on Learning Difficulty among School Children

Formal schooling in many other nations begins between ages 4 and 5, some research states that it starts earlier than this. The function of elementary schools throughout the world is to provide opportunities for children to acquire at least basic competencies in reading, writing, and computation. During middle childhood years, children are thought to be functioning developmentally at what Piaget termed the concrete and formal operational stages. Basic literacy as well as computational and conceptual skills is acquired at this phase. But some children may not be able to learn one or more of these skills as per their age. Their intellectual capacity and normal visual and physical abilities are unable to acquire one or more age appropriate language and /or arithmetic skills. They find it difficult to acquire the skill even when adequate learning opportunities are provided. These children have learning disabilities/ difficulties. Studies have revealed that nearly 10% of the childhood population has developmental language disorders of one type or the other and 8-10% of the school population has learning disability of one form or the other. Early intervention presupposes early identification. At present, there is no universally standardized screening procedure to guide referrals from schools. Interventions to rectify the issue should focus on developing and strengthening language and basic skills of reading, writing and arithmetic. In addition we should ensure that children should be allowed to “think” for them, to develop higher cognitive functioning is vital.

EFEKTIVITAS METODE PROBLEM BASED LEARNING DALAM MENINGKATKAN KEAKTIFAN SISWA MI TARBIYATUL ATHFAL BABAT

Student activity is one of the learning activities that should be trained to students because high scientific reasoning will affect students in making decisions and solving problems. It takes seriousness in practicing scientific reasoning skills. So the teacher must choose the appropriate learning approach. This article discusses the problem based learning model which is an inquiry-based learning model, where learning begins by giving a problem. The second discussion, introduced patterns of scientific reasoning that can be trained on students both at the concrete and formal operational stages. At the end of the discussion, the PBL model will be able to facilitate students in developing scientific reasoning

THE ROLE OF INQUIRY APPROACH AND COGNITIVE STAGE ON STUDENT’S MATHEMATICAL CRITICAL THINKING ABILITY AND SELF REGULATED LEARNING

The goal of this research is to analize the role of inquiry approach (IA) and cognitive stage (CS) on students’mathematical critical thinking ability (MCTA) and self regulated learning in mathematics (MSRL). The research adopted a pretest and postest design and involved 60 eleventh grade students of 16 – 18 years old, a MCTA test, the TOLT, and Longeot test, and a MSRL scale, and student’s opinion on IA lessons. The study revealed that percentage of student’ CS, were as follow 11.7% at concrete stage, 65.0% at transition stage, and 23.3% at formal stage. In further analysis the study found that IA and CS took a good role on obtaining student’s MCTA, but not for MSRL. The formal operational stage students obtained higher grades on MCTA than the transitional and concrete operational stages, conversely the concrete operational stage students obtained higher grades on MSRL than the formal and transitional operational. Students taught by saintific approach (SA) realized more difficulties in solving MCTA tasks than students getting treatment with IA. The study also found 1) MCTA students whose learning with IA is better than SA at medium grade level 2) no association between MCTA and CS, MCTA and MSRL, and CS and MSRL. Beside that, students performed intense activities during the IA lessons such as to discuss acitvely, to solve problems enthutiastically, and to present their work in front of the class voluntary.

The Use of History in Life Studies Textbooks in Germany

Hayat bilgisi derslerinde tarih konularının yer alması, tarih farkındalığının ve tarihsel öğrenmenin erken yaşlarda inşasında önemlidir. İlkokulda tarih konularının öğretilmesi, pedagojik yaklaşımla doğrudan ilgilidir. Tarihsel öğrenmede, ülkemizdeki gibi, Piaget’nin bilişsel gelişim kuramına yakın bir yaklaşım etkiliyse, çocuğun sihirli yıl olan 12 yaşa kadar somut işlemler döneminde olduğu düşünülür. Soyut içeriğe sahip tarih dersleri ancak bu yaştan itibaren yani soyut işlemler döneminde öğrenilebilir. Egan’ın tarihsel düşünme evrelerine yakın bir yaklaşım etkiliyse, çocuğun mitik evreden (4-9 yaş) itibaren tarih öğrenebileceği savunulur. Böylece öğrenciler tarih konularıyla daha erken yaşta karşılaşır. Almanya’da ilkokul öğrencileri hayat bilgisi derslerinde (Sachunterricht) tarih konularıyla karşılaşırlar. Bu araştırmanın amacı, Almanya’da hayat bilgisi dersi kapsamındaki tarih konularının neler olduğunun ve tarihin nasıl kullanıldığının incelenmesidir. Nitel araştırma desenlerinden durum çalışmasının kullanıldığı araştırmada doküman incelemesi yapılmıştır. Araştırma verileri, hayat bilgisi ders kitaplarından elde edilmiş ve bulgulara, betimsel analiz ve içerik analizi yapılarak ulaşılmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemini, Almanya’da 3. sınıfta okutulan iki, 3 ve 4. sınıflarda okutulan bir adet hayat bilgisi ders kitabı oluşturmaktadır. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, “geçmişe bakış, günümüz ve gelecek için öğrenmeyi mümkün kılar” anlayışını benimseyen hayat bilgisi ders kitaplarında; zaman kavramından, değişim ve sürekliliği temel alan çocuğun yakın çevresinden, yaşadığı yerin tarihsel arka planına yönelik yerel tarih konuların yanı sıra ilk insanlardan, doğanın ve doğal unsurların şekillenmesinden, geçmişte ve günümüzde kullanılan eşyalardan, orta çağda yaşamdan konular yer almaktadır. Ayrıca tarih konularının ‘yerel tarih/ mekânın tarihi’, ‘eşya/ nesne tarihi’, ‘sosyal tarih/ gündelik hayatın tarihi’, ‘Orta çağ tarihi’ temaları altında yer aldığı ve değişim ve süreklilik ile kültürel miras farkındalığını sağlamak amacıyla kullanıldıkları anlaşılmıştır.

The Mediating Role of Media Internalization in Body Scrutinization and Body Image Dissatisfaction in Thai Homosexual Male Youth

The debilitating impact of body image dissatisfaction has been well-documented, leading to attempts to propose ways to alleviate the dissatisfaction. These proposals are drawn primarily from findings from studies on female youth. The current study extends this work, and contributes to an emerging initiative to attempt to reduce body image dissatisfaction in homosexual male youth. Past empirical findings have identified these adolescents to be particularly prone to body image dissatisfaction. With the formal operational stage of cognitive development, adolescents are particularly self-conscious and scrutinize their body image more critically, leading to body image dissatisfaction. The aim of the current study was to identify a potential protective factor that might help reduce the impact of body scrutinization in Thai homosexual male adolescents. These participants were selected due to the relative lack of published research on body image in Asian homosexual males. Additionally, despite its orientation toward the collectivistic fulfillment of social roles and obligations, Thai culture is quite accepting of sexual minorities. Homosexual male body image ideals are portrayed in the media with relatively high frequency. For this reason, internalization of media influence was selected as a potential mediator of the relationship between body scrutinization and body image dissatisfaction. Data were collected from 114 Thai homosexual male youths who responded to online questionnaires measuring body scrutinization, media internalization, and body image dissatisfaction. As hypothesized, findings demonstrated that body scrutinization significantly predicted both body image dissatisfaction and media internalization. Media internalization significantly but partially mediated the relationship between body scrutinization and body image dissatisfaction. Implications were discussed in terms of the preventative and therapeutic potentials for reducing media influence on body image dissatisfaction when the scrutinization was engaged.

Cognitive Impairments in Children with Down Syndrome

This study is designed to determine the cognitive impairments in individuals with Down syndrome. This study was conducted in September to November 2014. Sample of 30 patients was taken by using purposive sampling technique within three months. Observational and Cross-sectional study design was used. This was a hospital-based study in which patients with Down’s syndrome between the age range of 5-18 and both genders were included. A structured questionnaire was developed that was based on Piaget’s theory of cognitive development to assess the cognitive abilities by assessing tasks related to developmental ages. Out of those 30 patients 15(50٪) were male and 15(50٪) were females. Most of the patients were found in age range of 5-10 years according to frequency 16 (53.3٪) followed by 10 (33.3٪) patients in 10-15 years and 4 (13.3٪) in 15-20 years. The preoperational stage of cognitive development showed that the girls were more impaired. Pretend-play (boys (50%), girls(46.7%)),Centration(boys(40.%), girls(33.3%) and irreversibility boys (50%) girls(40.%) are the aspects in which boys were tending to show better than boys. In concrete operational stage and in formal operational stage both genders were tending to show equal impairments in their cognitive aspects. In the children with Down syndrome it is observed that there is high frequency of cognitive impairment and girls are more cognitively impaired than boys. While the tasks which require more accuracy and intelligence such as reasoning, meta-cognition, inductive and deductive reasoning are rarely present in both genders. Keywords: Down syndrome, pre-operational, concrete-operational and formal-operational. DOI: 10.7176/JHMN/71-12 Publication date: February 29 th 2020

PROGRAM PEMBIASAAN HARIAN DALAM MEMBENTUK KARAKTER SISWA DITINJAU DARI PERSPEKTIF PSIKOLOGI BELAJAR

This study aims to determine the program of daily habituation activities in shaping the character of students of SMP Negeri 6 Pekalongan City, looking for what characters are to be formed in each daily habituation activity program, and concepts in psychological learning theory in explaining the process of habituation activities in shaping student character. This research is included in the field research with a descriptive qualitative approach. The results of the study of daily habituation programs in SMP Negeri 6 Pekalongan City are scheduled and conditional, namely tadarus and prayers before KBM (religious and disciplinary), duha prayer (religious and responsibility), dzhuhur prayers (religious and responsibility), canteen honesty (honesty), orderly coming and going home (discipline and responsibility), orderly appearance (discipline and responsibility), respectful flags singing the national anthem, and folk songs (love of the motherland and national spirit), group class picket (care about the environment and responsibility), conditioning the cleanliness (care for the environment), separation of organic and non-organic waste (care for the environment and responsibility). From the daily habituation program can be explained psychological approach, especially with learning theories, including (1) changes in student behavior with habituation activities and carried out repeatedly will be a reinforcer in student behavior in addition to reward and punishment as a reminder process for students, (2 ) students' self-awareness in behaving because of changes in student behavior needs to be seen from the cognitive development of students. Some students are still in the level of concrete operations and most have entered the formal operational stage so students are able to think more mature and able to think logically and logically. In addition, changes in student behavior are formed due to the process of imitation and demonstration from teachers in particular, and friends at school in general. So the role of the teacher, the school environment and the cognitive abilities of students is an important key in shaping behavior.

Belief in Metamorphosis

The idea that the borders between different natural species can be easily bridged by metamorphoses was central to the ancient worldview. Humans were believed to be able to undress their human appearance and to transform into any beast whichever, or, conversely, animals were believed to appear as human beings. This belief permeated daily life and ritual practice. The notion of metamorphosis was also central to ancient metaphysics: it affected ideas regarding creation and maintenance of the cosmos, as well as birth and death of living beings. This article demonstrates that developmental psychology can explain both the universal existence of this belief in premodern societies and its disappearance in modern societies. People staying on the preoperational stage cannot avoid believing in metamorphosis because it is an inevitable part of the cognitive patterns of this stage. People staying on the concrete and formal operational stages are in fact no more able to share these ideas because the notion of the invariance of natural kinds is an inevitable part of higher psychological stages. The article points to the fundamental importance of developmental psychology for ethnological research, especially for the study of ancient worldview.

Mathematical understanding and reasoning abilities related to cognitive stage of senior high school students

The goal of this study is to analyse the relationships among students’ mathematical understanding, reasoning abilities and their cognitive stage. The study is descriptive-analytic research involving 414 eleventh-grade students (17,43 years old) from seven senior high schools. The instruments of this study are tests on mathematical understanding and reasoning abilities, the Longeot Test and the Test of Logical Thinking (TOLT). The study revealed there were two kinds of attributes of the findings. First, based on the subject’s age (17,43 years old) there were different findings on students’ cognitive stages from the Piaget’s theory, there were many students did not reach formal operational stage yet, namely 21 % students were still on the concrete stage, 34% of students were still in the transition stage, and only 45% were on a formal stage. Second, there were two kinds findings those were firm toward Piaget’s theory, those were: a) the higher subject’s school classes, the number of formal subjects; b) on students’ mathematical understanding and reasoning abilities and mathematics formative and summative tests, formal students attained higher grades than transition students, and transition students attained higher grades than concrete students.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory: Critical Review

In the last century, Jean Piaget proposed one of the most famous theories regarding cognitive development in children. Piaget proposed four cognitive developmental stages for children, including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and the formal operational stage. Although Piaget’s theories have had a great impact on developmental psychology, his notions have not been fully accepted without critique. Piaget’s theory has some shortcomings, including overestimating the ability of adolescence and underestimating infant’s capacity. Piaget also neglected cultural and social interaction factors in the development of children’s cognition and thinking ability. Moreover, in terms of the methodological approach, Piaget’s theory had some ethical and bias problems as he studied his own children. However, Piaget contributions, particularly in regards to the process of education among children and transferring cognition into psychology, have had a significant effect on the science of child development.

Psychosocial and Cognitive Stage Approach to Learning and Teaching in Higher Education

This study relates the developmental stages of the learners in terms of psychosocial and cognitive stages of development to learning and teaching in higher education. The study aims to develop a framework based on the current teaching practices that are being implemented in higher education and how to incorporate these developmental stages to carry out effective teaching methods. It also correlates Identity versus Role Confusion - Intimacy versus Isolation psychosocial stages of Erik Erikson and Formal Operational cognitive stage of Jean Piaget. Learning is about how we perceive and understand the world, about making meaning (Marton and Booth, 1997). Knowing the developmental stages of the students will be helpful for teachers in terms of having a professional knowledge by knowing the lebarners themselves. This research is derived on the accessible knowledge regarding the stages and teaching methods but the idea of the author is to develop a simple framework of an approach that will be tailored practically to help teachers in higher education not only in the university setting but also sensibly be used by registered training providers that are using a vocational pathway before the final year of the learner’s bachelor’s degree based on the learners’ current psychosocial and cognitive developmental stages.

THE ROLE OF COGNITIVE STAGE TOWARD STUDENTS MATHEMATICAL CREATIVE THINKING AND HABITS OF MIND

The purpose of this survey is to examine the role of cognitive stage toward his or her attaiment of mathematical creative thinking (MCT) and habits of mind (HoM) grounded on student’s cognitive stage. The survey concerned with 36 eleventh grade students of 16.25 years old, test of logical thinking (TOLT), an essay MCT test, and a MSC scale. Data analysis covered: calculation of item scoring of HoM scale; percentage enumeration, Mann-Whitney testing for mean difference, of association between two variables, and other rational analysis relevant to the findings. By using TOLT, the survey found that 44% students’ were still at concrete operational stage, few students 19% at transition operational stage, and 36% students had reached at formal operational stage; in entirely, students’ MCT was at low grade level and students’ HoM was at fairly good grade level. Even if, according to cognitive stage, formal students, transition students, and concrete students survey detected successively at medium, low and very low grade level. In line with that findings, formal students realized few difficulties, transition students experienced some more difficulties and concrete students realized difficulties in all items of MCT tasks. In the contrary, either in entirely or according to cognitive stage there were no different grade of MSC among them, and those grades were at fairly good level. The other findings there was high associtaion between cognitive stage and MCT, but no association between cognitive stage and MSC and between MSC and HoM.

Диалектическое мышление: логика и психология

The article is devoted to the relation of logic and psychology of dialectical thinking. It provides three lines of understanding of dialectical thinking: dialectical thinking as a form of developing content, based on the resolution of oppositions; dialectical thinking as postformal stage of intelligence; dialectical thinking as a form of operating relationships of the opposites. Each approach has its own applications to the organization of educational practice. The first approach is presented by the works of E.V. Il'enkov, B.M. Kedrov, P.V. Kopnin and other authors. On a meaningful understanding of dialectics V.V. Davydov developed his methodology of developmental learning. The second approach in the study of dialectical thinking was largely shaped by J.Piaget’s operational concept of the intellect. K. Riegel argued that the development of thinking cannot stop at the stage of formal operations. Later on, the subject develops a more complex form of cognition — dialectical thinking. Representatives of the postformal understanding of dialectical thinking apply it in trainings for the development of professional thinking in adult subjects as well as in psychotherapy. In Russian psychology it has been shown that dialectical thinking acts as the individual’s independent ability to operate with opposites that can be developed starting from preschool age.

PENGEMBANGAN MODEL PEMBELAJARAN MY TRIP MY ADVENTURE

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this development research is expected to produce a product development package in the form of a learning model: 1). Learning device, 2). Assessment / evaluation guide to learning, 3). Guidelines for learning development, 4). Produce game- based learning models adopted from monopoly, 5). The development of the model is based on identifying the characteristics of students at the age that has reached the formal operational stage in terms of cognitive development, 6). The development of the model is based on the identification of learning objectives by considering the curriculum that has been implemented, namely the development of materials from the 2013 curriculum, 7). The learning model focuses on one material namely foreign eXIchange rates, and the same model cannot be applied to other subject matterAfter the product prototype was developed, the eXIpert validation test process, individual trials, small group tests and field tests were carried out. Based on the test results, the learning model is very valid, interesting, and effective can be applied in learning. This can be seen from the results of validation tests with the level of product feasibility of eXIperts content / material of 100%, validation of learning media eXIperts obtained an average score of 97.5%. Level of attractiveness of the product with an average percentage score of 89.76% entered the criteria very interesting. Effective products are used with an average percentage score of 79.66%.This product can also be used for a wider audience with adjustments, especially adjustments to the characteristics of students as users. Furthermore, the learning model that has been developed can be integrated with the use of information and communication technology.Keywords: Development, Learning Model, My Trip My Adventure

Computational Practices, Educational Theories, and Learning Development

[full article, abstract in English; abstract in Lithuanian]
 Many countries are adopting computing (or informatics) in schools, for pupils from 5 years of age. Educational philosophies (and learning theories) that such curricula might be based on are not clear in curriculum documentation. Many Western countries’ curricula are based on developmental concepts of cognitive constructivism, with activities progressing through sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. Social constructivism and constructionism add new dimensions to this learning framework, both fundamentally important for developing computing practices. We review selected learning theories, and investigate features that should underpin computing curricula if practices and outcomes are to develop computing practitioner competencies of a software developer.

Perceptions of effort sensations in children at varying stages of cognitive development

Most research on perceived effort in children has emanated from a physiological perspective. The purpose of this study was to delineate how children at two different levels of cognitive development perceive three effort sensations (e.g. breathing, exertion, and determination) during a physically incremental task. Participants (n = 50) for this study were recruited from two general age cohorts: 9 years of age (representing the concrete operational stage of cognitive development) and 13 years of age (representing the formal operational stage of cognitive development). Participants performed a stepping task under two physical load levels (0% and +20% of body weight). Dimensions of perceived effort sensations were measured at 30s intervals throughout the exercise. Both, concrete and formal operation cohorts, distinguished the effort sensations similarly across the duration of the exertive task and the two physical loads. Perceived exertion and breathing sensations increased linearly with effort intensity in both cohorts. Determination ratings did not remain stable over time for children in either stage of cognitive development, indicating that children may perceive this dimension differently than adults. The findings indicate that concrete and formal cognitive developmental stages do not pose any evaluative constrains on perceived exertion in young children and the motivational dimension of effort should be further studied in these cohorts.

Developing Vegetables Card Media As A Learning Media For Elementary School Students

Nutrition education efforts in schools have a great opportunity to successfully improve the knowledge of nutrition among the community because school students are expected to be a bridge for teachers with their parents, teachers as educators in the teaching and learning process have an influence on their students who are sometimes more comply than parents. Nutrition education should be given as early as possible, because children generally have a high desire to know and learn something further. The appropriate age of children to be given nutritional education is at 6-14 years, because this is the intellectual period in which children begin to learn. From the range, the most appropriate time in giving nutritional counseling is at the age of 11 years because at that age children are in the formal operational stage, which means able to think in abstract, build logical reasoning, and draw the conclusions of available information. The right media will increase the spirit of self-study according to the environment and enable students to learn by themselves according to their interests and abilities. Media must be created by not ruling out good and correct media requirements, so that information can be received in accordance with the wishes of the messenger. This research is a media development research. Starting by designing the format of the form and the content of the media. Furthermore the card was validated by 2 media experts, those were a lecturer in Health Polytechnic of Ministry of Health in Yogyakarta and a graphic designer. Then it was tested to 20 students of class V of academic year 2016/2017 in SDN Nglahar 1, Yogyakarta. Methods of data collection using questionnaire method and analyzed. The results concluded that vegetables cards developed were feasible to use. Presentation of feasibility based on validation result from lecturer and graphic design was 80.32% (feasible) as well as response from elementary school student equaled to 80.74% (feasible).

SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ASSESSMENT OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN FORMAL OPERATIONS COMBINATORIAL REASONING IN KENYA

Ponte Academic JournalSep 2018, Volume 74, Issue 9 SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ASSESSMENT OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN FORMAL OPERATIONS COMBINATORIAL REASONING IN KENYAAuthor(s): Tuntufye S MwamwendaJ. Ponte - Sep 2018 - Volume 74 - Issue 9 doi: 10.21506/j.ponte.2018.9.8 Abstract:According to Piaget, formal operations means ones ability to perform mental operations with abstract, intangible concepts such as justice or poverty or mankind and be in a position to provide a satisfactory explanation. The focus of this investigation was combinatorial reasoning among secondary school students in Kenya. The sample comprised 150 boys and girls selected from two secondary schools in the City of Nairobi, Kenya, who were administered a questionnaire on combinatorial reasoning. The results showed that the majority of participants were either at concrete operations or were at the transitional stage. Only 30 per cent had a good mastery of combinatorial reasoning ability. Such observation brought into question Piaget’s notion that cognitive development theory is universal. Furthermore, the finding confirmed the view that many secondary school students are not operating at the formal operations stage. Download full text:Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution Username Password