Formal Coach Education Research Articles

Infusing disability into coach education and development: a critical review and agenda for change

ABSTRACT Background The training of coaches is considered central to sustaining and improving the quality of sports provision. In Parasport, coaches are recognised at the highest level of international sport policy as performing a central role in achieving important sporting and social outcomes related to disabled people. However, an emerging body of evidence suggests that formal coach education plays only a minor role in Parasport coaches’ development. To ensure equitable access and quality experiences and opportunities for disabled people in sport there is an ongoing challenge to theorise and implement the optimal structure for educating coaches. Purpose The purpose of this paper is to address the central theme of disability and coach education reform in sport. The aim is to review critically the emerging literature on coach development in Parasport to provide some clarity and consensus on existing pathways and models for coach development, before outlining some potential ways forward for coach education. Discussion and Conclusions Starting with a critical review of existing research on coaches’ learning and development in Parasport, we then examine potential approaches to coach education, providing examples from existing research in coaching and the wider field of education. This is followed by some modest suggestions for coach education reform as it pertains to the inclusion of disability.

How Coach Educators Deliver Formal Coach Education: A Full Range Leadership Perspective

While recent work recognizes a need for coach education to place greater emphasis on interpersonal knowledge when developing coaching expertise, it is our position that coach educators (CEs) must follow a similar trajectory in embracing the interpersonal knowledge requisite of their role and move beyond a reliance on content and professional knowledge in order to shape their delivery. To better understand CEs’ behaviors, the authors observed four experienced CEs in Alpine skiing, using an adapted version of the Coach Leadership Assessment System during delivery of a coach education and assessment course. The authors also interviewed CEs to further elucidate the observational data. The findings suggest the benefit of transactional approaches to leadership during assessment when set against the backdrop of an environment driven by intentions consistent with transformational leadership. Furthermore, we call for a greater appreciation of context when imagining CEs’ behaviors that align with effective practice.

Creating and disseminating coach education policy: a case of formal coach education in grassroots football

ABSTRACT By examining on-course pedagogical practices, recent research has sought to inform the development of National Governing Body (NGB) coach education courses. Coach education programmes are, however, social constructs, and are influenced by policies and socio-economic factors. To inform future provision, there is a need to understand the construction of policy and the influences affecting course design. This study examined how the English Football Association (FA) redeveloped their coach education policy in 2016. The 2016 changes are pertinent because calls for educational provision to be informed by social constructivism have been made. The FA’s coach education policy (2016) claim to be informed by such a philosophical stance. This study, therefore, reports on what policy was created, and how it had been disseminated within the organisation. Twenty-eight interviews were conducted with 14 participants (staff members with different roles within the FA) across two separate points in time, 12 months apart. A thematic analysis identified three key themes: (1) Three Elements of Curriculum/Course Design (A learning strategy informed by social constructivism; a body of content for courses; a coaching competency framework and qualification specification); (2) Recontextualisation of the policy and some confusion during dissemination; and (3) A restricted code when disseminating policy. The significance of these findings extends beyond the case presented and policy makers who seek to inform course design with learning theory may wish to offer elaboration throughout the workforce via text and discourse. Future research should build on these findings and consider how knowledge is selected and legitimised by policy makers, and how coach developers implement recontextualised policies.

Negotiating a coach identity: a theoretical critique of elite athletes’ transitions into post-athletic high-performance coaching roles

ABSTRACT There has been a growing trend of elite athletes being fast-tracked into post-athletic high-performance coaching roles in association football and rugby union in England and Wales. This has been facilitated by an increase in bespoke and condensed formal coach education courses that are designed to accelerate current and/or former elite athletes in attaining their coaching accreditation. Hitherto, however, the individual lived experiences of former athletes on this career trajectory during their transition to coaching remains under-investigated. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to analyse how elite male association football and rugby union athletes based in England and Wales (re)created, re-negotiated or transformed their identities when negotiating a fast-tracked career pathway into a post-athletic high-performance coaching role. Fifteen male rugby union (n = 10) and association football (n = 5) athletes were interviewed on two separate occasions over twelve months. Interviews coincided with the start and end dates of the level three coach education course which they were concurrently enrolled on. Interviews focused upon how they (re)created their professional identities upon negotiating the career transition into a post-athletic high-performance coaching role. Data were critically theorised against sociological concepts associated with the theoretical frameworks of Bourdieu, Goffman and Foucault. Results identified how the development of a coaching identity was articulated through the need to define a ‘coaching philosophy’. Upholding a coach identity in an ‘honest’ disposition so athlete to coach respect could be best attained was expressed by all participants and contrasted with Goffman’s concepts of front and backstage impression management. Self-reflexive practices of Foucault’s askesis were engaged to varying levels to create a coach identity. In three cases this resulted in participants' contestation of their respective club’s identity/culture and losing employment as a coach. Finally, recommendations on how coach education structures can further support these coaches in their career transitions are made.

Layers of Learning in Coach Developers’ Practice-Theories, Preparation and Delivery

Despite the centrality of coach developers to formal coach education settings, only a handful of studies have begun to touch upon the role they play in mediating quality learning, while links between different layers of learning and impact on coach learners remains underexplored. This research explored English coach developers’ understanding of learning, and the learning frameworks taught to them, through unstructured interviews and participant observation of a generic coach developer training course. Three coach developers were observed delivering formal coach education, to elucidate how understanding was applied in practice. Supporting interviews with 16 coaches attending the course gave an indication of reactions to developers’ practice. Combined layers of data were analysed using a three-phase integrated analytic process. In the absence of pertinent evidence-informed coach developer training course design and delivery, implicit ‘practice-theories’, based on participants’ experiences as coaches and coach developers, appeared to inform understanding and practices. Despite acknowledging ‘learner centred’ learning principles, coach developers experienced challenges implementing these in practice and coach learners perceived confusion and contradictions. Findings are discussed in relation to contemporary ideas around coaches’ and coach developers’ learning, to highlight potential ways that coach developers could be more effectively prepared and supported.

Learning from the past; a Freirean analysis of FA coach education since 1967

ABSTRACT Formal coach education has been described as an activity which promotes conformity from course attendees. To date, however, few studies have looked at how coach education has been socially constructed over time. The present study addresses this gap and provides a Freirean account of English Football Association (FA) coach education since 1967. Specifically, this study focuses on coach education in the participation domain (grassroots football) where many participants first experience football. Data were collected through an analysis of 47 documents including coaching materials and FA policies. In addition, an oral history of 16 participants whom had all experienced FA coach education were conducted. This paper presents five findings which explain the development of pedagogy over time. The findings illustrate a move away from oppressive, dogmatic pedagogical methods towards a more liberating form of coach education policy. For example, FA formal coach education policy now embraces in-situ methods to situate learning in the lives of coaches. The paper supports the trajectory towards liberation by advocating for more humility and critical-consciousness between tutors and coaches, thus rejecting the concept of banking education. In doing so the paper makes three novel contributions by; (1) describing the development of FA coach education over time; (2) introducing a Freirean theoretical perspective to coach education research; and (3) prompting course tutors to consider how they can enhance their practice to be more liberating. These lessons may benefit educators both in football and other contexts.

Evidencing the impact of coaches’ learning: Changes in coaching knowledge and practice over time

ABSTRACTIt is clear that sport coaches learn from multiple interconnected learning experiences, yet there is limited direct evidence to elucidate what is learned and how these combined experiences shape coaches’ knowledge and day-to-day practice. This research aimed to investigate the impact of the learning of two groups of English youth soccer coaches over a period of a year and a half. Using the Coach Analysis and Intervention System (CAIS) and associated video-stimulated recall interviews, changes in the practice behaviours and knowledge use of coaches completing a formal coach education course, and equivalent coaches not undertaking formal education, were compared. Data indicated that the learning period had a different effect on coaches taking part in formal coach education versus those not in education. Changes in the use of knowledge about individual players and tactics were reflected in increased behaviours directed towards individuals, and an altered proportion of technical to tactically related questioning, linked to coaches’ participation in education. Overall, more change was evident in coaching knowledge than in practice behaviours, suggesting an absence of deep learning that bridged the knowledge-practice gap.

“I thought we were supposed to learn how to become better coaches”: developing coach education through action research

ABSTRACT Youth coaches play a crucial role in the development of young athletes and their physical, psychological and social well-being. Therefore, it is important to foster and develop youth coaches’ ability to govern and act effectively in their coaching practices. Sports organisations facilitate the development of youth coaches through formal coach education. However, research has shown this to be with limited effect. The purpose of this action research study was to involve youth coaches in developing a new and more effective coach education practice. The coaches developed their practices through both dialogue and reflection with each other. A shift in the mindset of the coaches resulted in a more reflective and analytical approach in their way of thinking and talking about their practices. The most effective tools for improving the coach educational practice was the active management of the relations between the participating coaches and assisting the coaches’ reflection and dialogue through the use of scaffolding. In order to engage coaches in the educational practice, alignment between coaches’ expectations and both course content and form was crucial. These findings provide further insight into how coaches can develop their practices and how sports organisations can develop more effective coach education practices.

A comparative analysis of the coaching skills required by coaches operating in different non-competitive paddlesport settings

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the coaching behaviours of different paddlesport coaches (n = 17). A sample of coaches specialising in non-competitive paddlesport from professional, club and educational contexts are examined utilising a thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews. The three groups are shown to share common aspect such the importance of interpersonal skills within their coaching, the development of their coaching skill set via experiential learning and effective reflection and the importance of effective Professional Judgment and Decision making. However, the groups differ in respect to how they view their coaching role, the role of personal performance skills within their coaching and the impact of formal coach education in their development. The implication for coach education is that coaches working in an educational setting may be better served by a coach educational process that focusses more specifically on their skill set requirements and less on performance development.

Informal and nonformal learning for sport coaches: A systematic review

Millions of athletes compete in sport for the enjoyment, physical, and psychosocial benefits that result from participation, and one of the most influential persons in creating a positive sport experience is the coach. As such, numerous sport governing bodies have instituted formal coach education programs, worldwide, over the past three decades. However, coaches most frequently learn, and often prefer to learn, from informal sources, as they tend to be contextually relevant and easily accessible. Given the pervasive nature of informal learning, the purposes of this systematic review were to: (a) examine the literature for themes and trends in sport context, methods, and means of informal and nonformal learning, and (b) illuminate gaps in the literature to inform the research field and coach educators. A total of 39 studies were examined for trends in publication, sport context, methods of inquiry, and themes in the sources and types of informal learning. The results show that: (1) research is spread widely across publications but not countries, (2) elite sport contexts are most frequently studied, (3) qualitative, cross-sectional methods are most frequently used, and (4) coaches learn informally through a variety of means; however, they are open to both interpersonal (coach-to-coach) or independent (knowledge search) means of learning. Future research should expand to include non-elite contexts, should employ greater methodological diversity, and should continue to explore the variety of preferred learning options.

Psychophenomenology and the explicitation interview for accessing subjective lived experience in sport coaching

ABSTRACTThe purpose of this position paper is to promote the interest, usefulness and specificity of a coherent system that is based on psychophenomenology as a theoretical framework [Vermersch, P. (2012). Explicitation et phénoménologie. Paris: PUF], and the explicitation interview [Vermersch, P. (2009). Describing the practice of introspection. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 16(10–12), 20–57] as an appropriate and original method for studying the subjective lived experience of participants in sport situations. This original approach is associated with an epistemological posture which accords significant importance to the first-person point of view (i.e. what is appearing to a person about his own subjective lived experience in a past situation). After presenting some limitations in other phenomenological approaches and interview methods, we highlight the specificity of the theoretical background and the method of explicitation interview, for describing in detail the actions and understanding the lived experience of a person in a past and singular situation. To demonstrate the potential of this approach, we provide two specific examples of explicitation interview data from an in-match player decision-making situation and an in-game half-time speech of a coach. In concluding, we contend that psychophenomenology and the explicitation interview present new perspectives and opportunities for coach education, by developing the analysis of the subjective lived experience. This may have important implications for sport-related research and the development of coaching practice and formal coach education, through closer links to real life experiences.

The micro-politics of organizational change in professional youth football: towards an understanding of the “professional self”

ABSTRACTOrganizational and managerial change plays a significant role in the employment and working lives of coaches in professional football. However, research that explores how individual coaches experience the change process is limited. The aim of this article is to explore the experiences of Ian (pseudonym), a professional football academy youth coach, during the process of organizational change. Data were collected through field notes, informal observations and meetings, formal academy team meetings, co-worker interviews, and four semi-structured in-depth participant interviews. Findings were analysed through a micro-political framework, with a focus on professional self-understanding. They reveal the importance of micro-political literacy in understanding the impact of organizational change on the participant’s working conditions and continued employment. It is proposed that an understanding of micro-politics, professional self-understanding, and micro-political literacy should be developed in formal coach education programmes to better prepare coaches for the realities of employment in professional football.

Coach Education and Learning Sources for Coaches of Masters Swimmers

Masters Athletes (MAs; adult athletes typically over 35 years old who prepare in order to compete at levels ranging from very recreational competition to serious competition) want coaches to cater their approaches to working with adults. Using adult learning principles, we previously found that some coaches cater their approaches in ways to accommodate the manner in which adult athletes prefer to learn. The purpose of this article is to articulate swim coaches’ perceptions of how they learned to work with MAs and whether their formal coach training meets their needs related to coaching MAs. Eleven swim coaches were interviewed regarding how they learned to coach MAs, and were questioned specifically about their coach development broadly and coach education specifically. The data were thematically analyzed and results revealed six main learning sources: coaching experiences (e.g., interacting with MAs, reflection, advice from MAs, coaching youth), experience as an athlete, reading books and Internet searches, networks and mentors, formal coach education, and non-swimming experiences. Results also revealed key themes about coaches’ perceptions regarding coach education, specifically the lack of connection between coach education programs and the Masters sport context, and coaches’ interest in coach education specific to MAs.

Connecting knowledge(s) to practice: a Bernsteinian theorisation of a collaborative coach learning community project

ABSTRACTCollaborative action learning was undertaken in response to the growing criticisms of formal coach education. Since it is strongly felt that we can no longer merely commentate on what is not happening in terms of coach learning, a key requirement now is to demonstrate there are other options. The Coach Learning and Development (CLAD) programme was devised and implemented at a community rugby club in Wiltshire, England. The CLAD programme supported volunteers to engage more with contemporary designs for learning, acknowledging a fundamental problem with formal coach education in the way learning (and knowledge) is decontextualised. The theoretical endeavours of Basil Bernstein are introduced to Sport Coaching Research (SCR) for the first time, specifically the ‘pedagogical device’ to illustrate a process of recontextualisation. Findings suggest that the CLAD programme was successful in encouraging coaches to engage with more positive forms of coaching pedagogy. Therefore, the findings draw on the pivotal outcomes of the CLAD programme to re-configure more successful outcomes for coach education, coach learning and volunteers rights to knowledge.

An analysis of the value of multiple mentors in formalised elite coach mentoring programmes

ABSTRACTBackground: Within the context of sports coaching and coach education, formalised mentoring relationships are often depicted as a mentor–mentee dyad. Thus, mentoring within sports coaching is typically conceptualised as a one-dimensional relationship, where the mentor is seen as the powerful member of the dyad, with greater age and/or experience [Colley, H. (2003). Mentoring for Social Inclusion. London: Routledge].Aim: The aim of this study was to explore the concept of a multiple mentor system in an attempt to advance our theoretical and empirical understanding of sports coach mentoring. In doing so, this paper builds upon the suggestion of Jones, Harris, and Miles [(2009). “Mentoring in Sports Coaching: A Review of the Literature.” Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy 14 (3): 267–284] who highlight the importance of generating empirical research to explore current mentoring approaches in sport, which in turn can inform meaningful formal coach education enhancement. The significance of this work therefore lies in opening up both a practical and a theoretical space for dialogue within sports coach education in order to challenge the traditional dyadic conceptualisation of mentoring and move towards an understanding of ‘mentoring in practice’.Method: Drawing upon Kram’s [(1985). Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organisational Life. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman] foundational mentoring theory to underpin a multiple mentoring support system, 15 elite coach mentors across a range of sports were interviewed in an attempt to explore their mentoring experiences. Subsequently, an inductive thematic analysis endeavoured to further investigate the realities and practicalities of employing a multiple mentoring system in the context of elite coach development.Results: The participants advocated support for the utilisation of a multiple mentor system to address some of the inherent problems and complexities within elite sports coaching mentoring. Specifically, the results suggested that mentees sourced different mentors for specific knowledge acquisition, skills and attributes. For example, within a multiple mentor approach, mentors recommended that mentees use a variety of mentors, including cross-sports and non-sport mentors.Conclusion: Tentative recommendations for the future employment of a multiple mentoring framework were considered, with particular reference to cross-sports or non-sport mentoring experiences.

Coaching journeys: longitudinal experiences from professional football in Great Britain

The aim of this research was to consider the coaching journeys of eight experienced professional football coaches. In-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted over two data points, a decade apart, and analysed thematically. Findings explored the coaches’ longitudinal professional playing and coaching experiences, including their learning and development and engagement with formal coach education over four decades. The coaches’ narratives highlighted how their biographies had shaped their identities, learning and practice. Each coach emphasised the importance of experiential learning, learning from other coaches, practicing in diverse coaching domains and the ongoing nature of learning. Data highlighted limitations in formal decontextualised coach education and “fast-tracking”. Findings also illustrated something of the changing nature and demands of coaching and how the coaches have adjusted their practice in order to meet the contemporary demands and expectations of their athletes. The coaches reported they required greater education and support around this area. Coaches’ journeys are an under-utilised resource and have implications for future coaching practice, coach learning and coach education development.

Talent development of high performance coaches in team sports in Ireland

Background: Coaches are central to the development of the expert performer and similarly to continued lifelong participation in sport. Coaches are uniquely positioned to deliver specific technical and tactical instruction and mentoring programmes that support the psychological and social development of athletes in a challenging, goal-oriented and motivational environment. The current study aimed to qualitatively investigate current coach learning sources and coaches’ educational backgrounds in team sports in Ireland. Methods: Coaches from five team sports in Ireland were asked to complete an online questionnaire. Subsequently male coaches (n = 19) from five team sports who completed the questionnaire and met the inclusion criteria were invited to attend a follow-up semi-structured interview. Inclusion criteria for coaches were that they possess at least 10 years’ experience coaching their sport and were coaching more than 4 hours per week. Results/Discussion: Formal coach education does not meet the needs of high performance coaches who rely more on self-directed learning and coaching experience as their main sources of CPD. Although prior playing experience at a high level is both valuable and desirable, there are concerns about fast-tracking of ex-players into high performance coaching roles. Conclusions: Preferred sources of education and the best learning environment for coaches of team sports in Ireland are more informal than formal. Further research is needed to examine how this learning is applied in a practical manner by examining coaching behaviours and the impact it has on the athlete development process.

Exploring How Well UK Coach Education Meets the Needs of Women Sports Coaches

Inclusive and equitable processes are important to the development of sports coaching. The aim of this study was to explore how well UK coach education meets the needs of women sports coaches to make recommendations to further enhance the engagement of, and support for, aspiring and existing women coaches. The national governing bodies (NGBs) of four sports (Cycling, Equestrian, Gymnastics and Rowing) volunteered to participate and semistructured interviews using the tenants of Appreciative Inquiry (AI) within a Self Determination Theory (SDT) framework were undertaken with 23 coaches, eight coach educators and five NGB officers. The data themed into an analytic structure derived from SDT comprising ‘Autonomy: Freedom to coach’, ‘Coaching competence’, and ‘Relatedness and belonging’. The coaches perceived potential benefit from enhanced relatedness and belonging within their sport with the findings suggesting that NGBs should embrace coach-led decision making in terms of the developmental topics which are important and should adopt the development of competence, rather than assessing technical understanding, as the foundational principle of more inclusive coach education. Future research should investigate the impact of the inclusive practices which are recommended within this investigation such as the softening of the technocratic focus of formal coach education.

Football, sport and the development of young people’s life skills

The development of life skills has been associated with participation in sport, football and other physical activities. A factor in enabling this ambition to be realized is the actions and behaviours of sports coaches. Drawing on the concept of positive youth development through sport, the first part of this paper considers the types of environments coaches need to create in order for players to develop life skills. The second part of this paper discusses formal coach education and its role in developing coaches’ knowledge of life skills development. The third and final section of this paper offers an alternative explanation of how people’s exposure to certain social contexts results in the development of life skills. A review of literature in these areas reveals that the role sport and football has played in players’ development of life skills is unclear and in need of future research attention.

Making Mentoring Work: The Need for Rewiring Epistemology

ABSTRACTTo help produce more expert coaches at the participation and performance levels, a number of governing bodies have established coach mentoring systems. In light of this trend, against the limited literature on coach mentoring and the risks of superficial treatment by coach education systems, this article critically discusses the role of the mentor in coach development, the nature of the mentor–mentee relationship, and, most specifically, how expertise in the mentee may best be developed. If mentors are to be effective in developing expert coaches, we consequently argue that a focus on personal epistemology is required. On this basis, we present a framework that conceptualizes mentee development on this level through a step by step progression, rather than through an unrealistic and unachievable leap toward expertise. Finally, we consider the resulting implications for practice and research with respect to one-on-one mentoring, communities of practice, and formal coach education.