Forms Of Perfectionism Research Articles

Exercise behaviour, enjoyment and boredom: A test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism

Previous research investigating the role or perfectionism in exercise has been limited by both the method of investigation (largely examining independent effects of perfectionism dimensions), and the outcome variables that have been studied (mostly maladaptive outcomes). The purpose of the current study was to investigate the role of perfectionism on exercise behaviour, boredom, and enjoyment using the recently established 2 × 2 model of perfectionism. This model proposes that different forms of perfectionism, such as self-oriented (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), will interact to influence different outcomes. One hundred and ninety-four college students completed a multi-section inventory comprised of demographics, the Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS; Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L., Turnbull-Donovan, W., & Mikail, S. F. [1991]. The Multidimensional perfectionism scale: Reliability, validity, and psychometric properties in psychiatric samples. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 3(3), 464–468. doi:10.1037/1040.3.3.464), the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES; Kendzierski, D., & DeCarlo, K. J. [1991]. Physical activity enjoyment scale: Two validation studies. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13, 50–64. doi:10.1123/jsep.13.1.50), and the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLETQ; Godin, G., & Shephard, R. J. [1985]. A simple method to assess exercise behaviour in the community. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, 141–146. doi:10.1037/t31334-000). Somewhat contrary to the predictions of the 2 × 2 model, we obtained significant interactions between SOP and SPP for boredom in exercise only. More specifically, the highest levels of boredom were associated with high levels of SOP and low levels of SPP (“pure personal standards perfectionism” in the parlance of the 2 × 2 model). In addition, SOP was a significant negative predictor of weekly, mild, moderate, and strenuous exercise minutes and a significant positive predictor of enjoyment. SPP positively predicted mild and moderate exercise. These findings do not offer full support for the use of the 2 × 2 model but we suggest that the model may be better suited for more achievement related environments.

Perfectionism and Employee Engagement among Management Faculty: An Empirical Study

thesized relationships and indicate that perfectionism predicts employee engagement among management faculty. The results also indicated that employee engagement bears a positive relationship with task performance. The study results suggested that the management institutions should realign their HR processes to develop a sense of perfectionism in their employees’ personality in order to affect the employee engagement and task performance of their employees in a positive way. Purpose: Today’s Business environment is posing numerous challenges for the organizations due to which survival is becoming tough day by day. However, to handle any challenge the most invigorating resource, any organization can bank upon is their employees. Engaged employees are found to deliver high performance and thus in order to understand the key antecedents of employee engagement, the purpose of this study was to examine how perfectionism and the three forms of perfectionism i.e. self-oriented perfectionism, other oriented perfectionism, and socially prescribed perfectionism were associated with employee engagement in a sample of faculty members in management institutions. It also focused on examining and understanding the interaction between employee engagement and the task performance. Design/methodology/approach: The paper used predominantly the quantitative approach and briefly outlines the relationship between perfectionism, the three forms of perfectionism and employee engagement using the data from a sample of 218 faculty members from 12 private institutions and 3 private universities of Northern Indian region. Data was collected using a battery of questionnaires including the Hewitt and Flett (1991)’s Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (MPS), the Intellectual, Social, Affective Engagement Scale (ISA Engagement Scale), and the Goodman and Syvantek (1999)’s task performance scale. Pilot testing was done to check the reliability of the questionnaire and the Cronbach alpha value was found to be 0.76. Correlations, regressions and descriptive analysis were carried out. Findings: The study results provided considerable support for the hypo Originality/value: The paper contributes by filling a gap in the management literature, in which empirical studies on perfectionism and its relationship with employee engagement among the faculty members in management institutions have been scarce until now. This study also contributes to the academic research by highlighting a positive interaction between employee engagement and task performance and negating the speculation that employee engagement is just the latest management fad.

Intellectual Perfectionism about Schooling

AbstractIn education, character education is a burgeoning field; however, it is also the target of considerable criticism. Amongst criticisms of character education, the political criticism that character education is a form of indoctrination stands out. In particular, the charge is made against character education that it breaches the principle of liberal neutrality about the good. In this article I discuss liberal approaches to character education. I outline the two most prominent liberal approaches to character education in school, liberal neutralism and liberal perfectionism, as we find it in the work of Clayton (neutralism) and Levinson (liberal perfectionism). I hold that the two standard liberal approaches do not distinguish carefully enough between two possible forms of character education – moral character education and intellectual character education. Drawing on recent work in virtue epistemology, I hold that the liberal position tacitly demands intellectual character education. Regarding moral character education, however, I hold that the picture appears different. In the final analysis, I advocate a new form of perfectionism regarding character education that I call ‘intellectual perfectionism’. According to intellectual perfectionism, schools should be perfectionist regarding children's intellects, but neutralist regarding their morals.

Are Cities Illiberal?

One of the main characteristics of today’s democratic societies is their pluralism. As a result, liberal political philosophers often claim that the state should remain neutral with respect to different conceptions of the good. Legal and social policies should be acceptable to everyone regardless of their culture, their religion or their comprehensive moral views. One might think that this commitment to neutrality should be especially pronounced in urban centres, with their culturally diverse populations. However, there are a large number of laws and policies adopted at the municipal level that contradict the liberal principle of neutrality. In this paper, I want to suggest that these perfectionist laws and policies are legitimate at the urban level. Specifically, I will argue that the principle of neutrality applies only indirectly to social institutions within the broader framework of the nation-state. This is clear in the case of voluntary associations, but to a certain extent this rationale applies also to cities. In a liberal regime, private associations are allowed to hold and defend perfectionist views, focused on a particular conception of the good life. One problem is to determine the limits of this perfectionism at the urban level, since cities, unlike private associations, are public institutions. My aim here is therefore to give a liberal justification to a limited form of perfectionism of municipal laws and policies.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Brazilian version of the Beliefs about Emotions Scale.

Introduction Beliefs about the unacceptability of expression and experience of emotion are present in the general population but seem to be more prevalent in patients with a number of health conditions. Such beliefs, which may be viewed as a form of perfectionism about emotions, may have a deleterious effect on symptomatology as well as on treatment adherence and outcome. Nevertheless, few questionnaires have been developed to measure such beliefs about emotions, and no instrument has been validated in a developing country. The current study adapted and validated the Beliefs about Emotions Scale in a Brazilian sample. Methods The adaptation procedure included translation, back-translation and analysis of the content, with the final Brazilian Portuguese version of the scale being tested online in a sample of 645 participants. Internal consistency of the scale was very high and results of a principal axis factoring analysis indicated a two-factor solution. Results Respondents with high fatigue levels showed more perfectionist beliefs, and the scale correlated positively with questionnaires measuring anxiety, depression and fear of negative evaluation, confirming cross-cultural associations reported before. Finally, men, non-Caucasians and participants with lower educational achievement gave greater endorsement to such beliefs than women, Caucasian individuals and participants with higher educational level. Conclusions The study confirms previous clinical findings reported in the literature, but indicates novel associations with demographic variables. The latter may reflect cultural differences related to beliefs about emotions in Brazil.

Perfectionism, Shame, and Trichotillomania Symptoms in Clinical and Nonclinical Samples

This study explored the relationships between multidimensional perfectionism (adaptive and maladaptive), shame (characterological, behavioral, and bodily), and trichotillomania (TTM) symptom severity in a nonclinical sample of 284 college students and a clinical sample of 125 individuals with TTM. Results suggested that the clinical sample reported significantly higher levels of maladaptive perfectionism, all three subtypes of shame, and TTM compared to the nonclinical sample. While none of the three subtypes of shame mediated the relationship between either form of perfectionism and TTM for the nonclinical sample, behavioral shame was a significant mediator between maladaptive perfectionism and TTM for the clinical sample. Implications for mental health counselors are discussed.

Self-Concealment Mediates the Relationship Between Perfectionism and Attitudes Toward Seeking Psychological Help Among Adolescents.

One of the biggest barriers in treating adolescents with mental health problems is their refusing to seek psychological help. This study was designed to examine the relationships between two forms of perfectionism, self-concealment and attitudes toward seeking psychological help and to test the mediating role of self-concealment in the relationship between perfectionism and attitudes toward seeking psychological help among Malaysian high school students. The participants were 475 Malaysian high school students from four high schools in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Structural equation modelling results indicated that high school students with high levels of socially prescribed perfectionism, high levels of self-concealment, and low levels of self-oriented perfectionism reported negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Bootstrapping analysis showed that self-concealment emerged as a significant, full mediator in the link between socially prescribed perfectionism and attitudes toward seeking psychological help. Moderated mediation analysis also examined whether the results generalized across men and women. The results revealed that male students with socially prescribed perfectionism are more likely to engage in self-concealment, which in turn, leads to negative attitudes toward seeking psychological help more than their female counterparts. The results suggested that students high in socially prescribed perfectionism were more likely to engage in self-concealment and be less inclined to seek psychological help.

Perfectionism and Test Anxiety among High-School Students: the Moderating Role of Academic Hardiness

Recent evidence suggests that test anxiety is increasing among students; however, relatively little is known regarding the related factors of test anxiety. The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the relationships between two forms of perfectionism, academic hardiness, and test anxiety, and (2) examine the moderating role of academic hardiness on the association between two types of perfectionism and test anxiety. This study included 520 students ranging from 15 to 21 years of age from eight high schools in Tehran, Iran completed the self-administered questionnaires. The results of Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) revealed that students with high levels of personal standards perfectionism and high levels of academic hardiness were less likely to experience test anxiety, while students with high levels of evaluative concerns perfectionism were more likely to experience test anxiety. A multi-group analysis revealed that academic hardiness moderated the relationship between evaluative concerns perfectionism and test anxiety. These findings enhance existing literature by revealing moderating processes that explain how perfectionism effects test anxiety.

Déterminants et conséquences du workaholisme chez des salariés français

The first purpose of the present research was to test the indirect effects of perfectionism (i.e., self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism) on workaholism (i.e., working excessively and working compulsively) through controlled motivation. The second aim was to examine the links between the two dimensions of workaholism, perceived stress, burnout, and work-family conflict. Two hundred seventy-three French employees completed a questionnaire assessing these different dimensions. Correlation analyses were conducted and provided preliminary support for our hypotheses. We then tested a mediational model through path analysis. Results revealed that both forms of perfectionism were positively linked to controlled motivation that in turn, was associated with high levels of workaholism. They also showed that working excessively and working compulsively positively related to perceived stress, burnout, and work-family conflict. These results are in line with our hypotheses. Theoretical and practical implications of this research are discussed.

Classifying eating disorders based on "healthy" and "unhealthy" perfectionism and impulsivity.

Perfectionism and impulsivity are associated with eating disorders (EDs). The current study examines whether clinically relevant subgroups of women with EDs can be identified based on "healthy" and "unhealthy" perfectionism and impulsivity. Latent profile analyses (LPA) were performed on data of 844 patients (DSM-IV diagnosis: 381 anorexia nervosa, 146 bulimia nervosa, 56 binge-eating disorder, 261 ED not otherwise specified). "Healthy" and "unhealthy" forms of perfectionism and impulsivity were assessed by the Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and the Dickman Impulsivity Inventory, respectively. The Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire was completed to assess ED psychopathology. Furthermore, in 229 patients additional ED symptoms, depression, self-esteem, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, and personality features were assessed. The LPA revealed four profiles; 1. "Healthy Impulsivity" (HI; n = 191), 2. "Unhealthy Impulsivity" (UI; n = 238), 3. "Healthy and Unhealthy Perfectionism" (HP + UP; n = 153), 4. "Healthy Perfectionism" (HP; n = 262). Patients belonging to the "HP + UP" and the "UI" classes reported higher levels of ED psychopathology. More severe comorbid symptoms (depressive, obsessive-compulsive and self-esteem) were found in the patients belonging to the "HP + UP" class. Patients from the "HP + UP" and "HP" classes had higher scores for the personality features Harm Avoidance, Persistence and Cooperativeness. Women with EDs could be meaningfully grouped according to perfectionism and impulsivity. These findings can be used to improve treatment matching and intervention strategies. The use of dimensional features, like perfectionism and impulsivity, in ED research, may enable the identification of fundamental underlying mechanisms and provide more insight into potential mechanisms that may drive or maintain disordered eating. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. (Int J Eat Disord 2016; 49:673-680).

Psychological Capital as Mediator between Adaptive Perfectionism and Academic Procrastination

AbstractResearch on perfectionism and separately on procrastination is extensive and both are related in general to negative consequences. However, there has been little research on different forms of perfectionism (maladaptive vs adaptive) and the relationships with procrastination. One study (Seo, 2008) has suggested that self-efficacy mediates between adaptive perfectionism and procrastination in academic settings and leads to more productive outcomes. Identifying further such positive productive factors may prove useful in helping individuals deal with their perfectionism and-or their procrastination tendencies. Positive psychological capital (PsyCap) may be one such other mediator, as PsyCap involves not only self-efficacy but also resilience, hope and optimism—attributes that have been associated separately each in their own right with positive behaviour and not with normal academic procrastination Most studies of PsyCap have occurred in organisational settings and may also be considered to be important attributes in the academic setting. Psychological capital as a positive mediator between adaptive perfectionism and procrastination in an academic setting was therefore examined in the current study, with results supporting the mediation effect. The implication is that those students with perfectionistic attributes can be helped to control some of the negative outcomes (such as procrastination) by developing skills in psychological capital. How this might work is discussed. Further detailed studies are needed including replication and identification of other mediators.

Perfectionism, personality, and affective experiences: New insights from revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory

Previous studies have linked perfectionism to differences in reinforcement sensitivity, but findings have been mixed. The present study explored the relationships between three forms of perfectionism (self-oriented, other-oriented, socially prescribed) and components of the revised Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality in relation to the experience of positive and negative affect. In a sample of 388 university students, we found consistent evidence of significant bivariate and semipartial correlations controlling for the overlap between the three forms of perfectionism: self-oriented perfectionism showed positive relationships with the Behavioral Approach System (BAS), the Behavioral Inhibition System (BIS), and the Fight–Flight–Freeze System (FFFS); other-oriented perfectionism showed a negative relationship with the BIS (and was unrelated to the FFFS); and socially prescribed perfectionism showed positive relationships with the BIS and BAS impulsiveness, and a negative relationship with BAS goal-drive persistence (and was unrelated to the FFFS). Furthermore, mediation analyses indicated that the reinforcement sensitivity components (BIS and BAS, but not FFFS) explained differences in how the three forms of perfectionism predicted recent positive and negative affect. These findings open up new empirical avenues in suggesting that fundamental emotion–motivational systems play a key role in the relationship of perfectionism and affective experiences.

How Other-Oriented Perfectionism Differs from Self-Oriented and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism: Further Findings

Investigating how other-oriented perfectionism (OOP) differed from self-oriented perfectionism (SOP) and socially prescribed perfectionism (SPP), Stoeber (Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 329–338, 2014a) found OOP to show unique positive relationships with the Dark Triad personality traits (narcissism, Machiavellianism, psychopathy) and unique negative relationships with nurturance, intimacy, and social development goals. Aiming to expand on Stoeber’s findings, the present study examined 229 university students investigating the unique relationships of the three forms of perfectionism with humor styles, callous-unemotional-uncaring traits, social value orientations, self- and other-interest, and positive self-evaluations (positive self-regard, feeling superior to others). When multiple regressions were conducted controlling for the overlap between the three forms of perfectionism, OOP showed unique positive relationships with aggressive humor, uncaring traits, an individualistic orientation, and positive self-regard and unique negative relationships with a prosocial orientation and other-interest. In contrast, SOP showed unique positive relationships with affiliative humor and other-interest and unique negative relationships with aggressive humor, callous-uncaring traits, and a competitive orientation whereas SPP showed unique positive relationships with self-depreciating humor and unemotional traits and unique negative relationships with both forms of positive self-evaluations. The findings provide further evidence that OOP is a “dark” form of perfectionism positively associated with narcissistic, antisocial, and uncaring personality characteristics.

Perfekcionizam - pozitivna ili negativna osobina? relacije sa subjektivnim blagostanjem, optimizmom i pesimizmom

Cilj ovog istraživanja bio je da se ispita odnos pozitivnog i negativnog perfekcionizma sa subjektivnim blagostanjem i proveri medijatorska uloga optimizma i pesimizma kao kognitivnih mehanizama u ovom odnosu. Prema dvoprocesnom modelu perfekcionizma postoje razlike u kognitivnom funkcionisanju pozitivnih i negativnih perfekcionista, što posledično dovodi do različitih, pozitivnih ili negativnih ishoda. U istraživanju je učestvovalo 287 studenata Univerziteta u Nišu, ujednačenih po polu. Utvrđeni rezultati generalno podržavaju postavke dvoprocesnog modela da perfekcionizam ima i pozitivna i negativa svojstva i ukazuju da su njegovi pozitivni i negativni aspekti različito povezani sa subjektivnim blagostanjem. Nalazi takođe upućuju da se odnos pozitivnog perfekcionizma i subjektivnog blagostanja ostvaruje delimično preko optimizma, dok je veza negativnog perfekcionizma i subjektivnog blagostanja potpuno posredovana optimizmom i pesimizmom kao medijatorima. Čini se da generalni način razmišljanja koji usvajaju može da zaštiti, ali isto tako i da hendikepira perfekcioniste u pogledu ishoda aktivnosti koje preduzimaju, i na taj način doprinese višem, tj. nižem nivou subjektivnog blagostanja. U narednim istraživanjima bi bilo značajno ispitati i druge mehanizme koji mogu imati medijacionu ulogu između perfekcionizma i subjektivnog blagostanja, ali i drugih indikatora mentalnog zdravlja.

Affect variation across days of the week: influences of perfectionism and academic motivation

The current study used a prospective design and the assessment of personal goals to examine the relation of self-critical and personal standards perfectionism to affective variation across days of the week. University students completed baseline measures of perfectionism and subsequently reported their nightly affect for seven consecutive days. Participants also listed four important personal goals for the academic year and rated their autonomous and controlled motivation for these goals. The expected pattern of affect variation across the week was obtained—highest positive affect on Saturday followed by a drop on Monday which continued through Thursday. The two forms of perfectionism were significantly related to daily affect on Monday, but in opposite ways, and these opposing patterns were mediated by differences in motivation for academic goals. Self-critical perfectionists felt highly controlled about their academic goals and responded negatively to the resumption of school on Monday. Personal standard perfectionists felt highly autonomous about their academic goals and responded positively to the return to school on Monday. The two forms of perfectionism were unrelated to affect experienced on Saturdays. The study suggests that personality and motivational factors can be used to understand affect variation from the weekend to the start of the week.

PERFECTIONISM AND ACHIEVEMENT GOAL ORIENTATIONS IN ADOLESCENT SCHOOL STUDENTS

Perfectionism has been shown to predict individual differences in achievement goal orientations in university students, but research on perfectionism and goal orientations in school students is still very limited. Investigating 584 adolescent school students in a cross‐sectional correlational design, the present study examined how self‐oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism predicted students’ goal orientations. Multiple regression analyses showed that, when the overlap between the different goal orientations was controlled for, self‐oriented perfectionism positively predicted mastery‐approach and mastery‐avoidance goal orientations whereas socially prescribed perfectionism positively predicted performance‐approach orientation. The present findings indicate that perfectionism predicts individual differences in adolescent school students’ achievement goal orientations, but different forms of perfectionism are associated with different patterns of goal orientations.

Perfectionism and Negative Affect After Repeated Failure

Perfectionists have shown increased negative affect after failure compared to nonperfectionists. However, little is known about how perfectionists react to repeated failure. This study investigated the effects of two forms of perfectionism – self-oriented perfectionism and socially prescribed perfectionism – on 100 university students’ reactions to repeated failure (versus repeated success) examining three negative emotions: anxiety, depression, and anger. Results showed that socially prescribed perfectionism predicted increased anxiety, depression, and anger after initial failure and further increased anger after repeated failure. In contrast, self-oriented perfectionism predicted increased anxiety, but only after repeated failure. The findings suggest that both self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism are vulnerability factors predisposing individuals to react with increased negative affect after repeated failure.

Affect Across the Year: How Perfectionism Influences the Pattern of University Students' Affect Across the Calendar Year

The current study used a prospective design to examine the relation of self-critical and personal standards perfectionism with university students' affect over a full calendar year. Specifically, we investigated the relation between the two forms of perfectionism and students' positive and negative affect within both the semester achievement demand and the holiday respite contexts. Two hundred and forty university students completed baseline measures of perfectionism and reported their affect at six follow-ups over two semesters and the winter and summer holidays. Stress experienced during the winter holiday was also assessed. Students' affect generally followed a cyclical pattern, declining over the fall and winter semesters but rebounding during the holidays. Results showed that while self-critical perfectionism was consistently related to worsened affect, this was not the case for personal standards perfectionism, which was specifically related to increased positive affect during the holidays. Perceive...

Perfectionism and social desirability: Students report increased perfectionism to create a positive impression

Because previous studies examining correlations between perfectionism and social desirability produced inconclusive findings, this study used an experimental approach examining the perceived social desirability of perfectionism. 117 university students were randomly assigned to three conditions (fake-good, standard, and fake-bad instructions) and then completed measures of self-oriented, other-oriented, and socially prescribed perfectionism. Results showed that all three forms of perfectionism were perceived as socially desirable. Self-oriented perfectionism showed a strong linear trend across the conditions: Students reported significantly higher self-oriented perfectionism in the fake-good condition, and significantly lower self-oriented perfectionism in the fake-bad condition compared to standard instructions. Other-oriented perfectionism showed the same linear trend, albeit weaker, and only fake-good and fake-bad conditions differed significantly. Socially prescribed perfectionism too showed a significant linear trend: Students reported higher levels in the fake-good condition compared to standard instructions and fake-bad condition, with no significant difference between the latter conditions. The findings indicate that, in educational settings, students perceive perfectionism—including maladaptive forms such as socially prescribed perfectionism—as socially desirable.

Pastoral Care for Shame-Based Perfectionism

While perfectionism has been associated with guilt dynamics, the form of perfectionism that is most frequently discussed by psychologists is connected to self-condemnation for perceived failures to reach the high standard set for personal achievement. There is therefore a strong link between perfectionism and inferiority shame. Psychotherapists have given quite a bit of attention to shame-based perfectionism; it has been largely neglected by pastoral psychologists. Three approaches to the pastoral care of shame-based perfectionism are developed. The first approach is based in cognitive therapy. It is argued that perfectionism is grounded in a faulty core belief about the self—namely, “I am what I achieve.” The second method makes use of strategies developed by John Bradshaw for accepting and affirming all one’s sub-selves. Bradshaw’s approach is critiqued, however, for the way in which shame-based and guilt-based perfectionism are confused. The third method is a modification and adaptation of Heinz Kohut’s strategy of “mirroring” (empathy, admiration, and approval) that he developed for use in work with clients with narcissistic personality disorder.