Forms Of Land Degradation Research Articles

Modern state of soil cover Burlin district of West Kazakhstan region

In the modern world, anthropogenic impact on the environment is common and leads to enormousconsequences, characterized in the form of land degradation, change and deterioration of soil cover,water pollution, etc. at the moment, more than 1/2 of the landscapes of the earth’s surface are subject tochanges due to human impact, and, of course, this is the soil cover. About twenty per cent of the landhas changed dramatically, this percentage can be attributed to built-up areas, roads, airports, including, drained, irrigated or flooded areas. Thirty percent is developed by agriculture, of which ten percent arearable lands, twenty percent are pastures. That is, human impact on the soil occurs in a variety of forms,bearing respectively direct or indirect impact. In this regard, timely actions in monitoring and assessingthe current state of the soil cover are important. Therefore, the theme and purpose of this article is thedisclosure of the current state of the soil cover of the Burlin district of West Kazakhstan region. To studythe current state of the soil cover of the Burlin district of West Kazakhstan region, data on soil samplesof 5 key sites from the territory of the Burlin district of West Kazakhstan region were taken. The data ofsoil cover samples of 5 key sites were made by specialists of the West Kazakhstan region in the testinglaboratory. The article shows the current state of the soil cover of the Burlin district of West Kazakhstanregion with the study of the main characteristics of the soil cover and with the assessment of contamination of the soil cover of the Burlin district of West Kazakhstan region. During the study of the soil cover,the excess of the maximum permissible concentration of such chemical elements as zinc, copper andNickel was established.Key words: anthropogenic impact, pollutants, soil, soil cover, maximum permissible concentration,current state, chemical compounds.

Land Degradation by Soil Erosion in Nepal: A Review

Land degradation, particularly soil erosion, is currently a major challenge for Nepal. With a high rate of population growth, subsistence-based rural economy, and increasingly intense rainfall events in the monsoon season, Nepal is prone to several forms of land degradation, such as floods, landslides, and soil erosion. To understand the causes, impacts, and possible management options for soil erosion, a review on the causal factors, status, and amelioration measures for land degradation in Nepal was conducted based on recent information available in national and international journals and grey literature. Intense rainfall and conventional tillage practices coupled with poor soil structure and steep slopes are the main drivers of soil erosion. Soil erosion leads to losses in soil and crop productivity, pollution of land and water resources, and a loss of farm income. Strategies to manage erosion include mulching, cover cropping, contour farming, strip cropping, and conservation agriculture practices, along with bioengineering techniques. Land degradation issues are a prime policy focus in Nepal, including national three- and five-year plans. However, these policies have been generally ineffective in reducing soil erosion, landslides, and floods in relation to the set targets. Realistic plans need to be formulated in Nepal focusing more on capacity enhancement and local participation to actively influence land-degradation processes.

English

The study was conducted in Alice, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. The objective of this study was to evaluate farmers’ perceptions on the impact of Vachellia karroo encroachment on livestock production and vegetation. Forty farmers (62% females and 38% males) were interviewed using semi-structured questionnaires. The results showed that goats and cattle were mainly kept for cash sales and sheep for wool production. Shortage of forage and lack of water points were the main constraints to livestock production, especially during the dry season. Cattle and sheep owners perceived that V. karroo encroachment had a negative impact on grazer production, as it reduces the grazing capacity of the veld. Goat owners viewed V. karroo as an acceptable tree to goats and its abundance favours browsers as compared to grazers. Although farmers have different views concerning the impact of V. karroo encroachment. The mean of livestock composition showed that goats (11.6±1.3) are more favoured by the veld condition compared to cattle (4.9± 1.1) and sheep (2.6±0.7). This study concludes that V. karroo had a negative impact on grazers’ production and sheep and cattle owners observed V. karroo encroachment as a form of land degradation. Pastoralists recommended that veld burning and bush clearing can be used to mitigate encroachment. Key words: Encroachment, degradation, livestock composition, Vachellia karroo.

Geospatial assessment of soil erosion intensity and sediment yield: a case study of Potohar Region, Pakistan

Estimation of spatial extent of soil erosion, one of the most serious forms of land degradation, is critical because soil erosion has serious implications on soil fertility, water ecosystem, crop productivity and landscape beauty. The primary objective of the current study was to assess and map the soil erosion intensity and sedimentation yield of Potohar region of Pakistan. Potohar is the rainfed region with truncated and complex topography lying at the top of the Indus Basin, the world’s largest irrigation networks of canals and barrages. Spatially explicit Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) Model integrated with Remote Sensing-GIS techniques was used for detecting/mapping of erosion prone areas and quantification of soil losses. The results show that the Potohar region is highly susceptible to soil erosion with an average annual soil loss of 19 tons ha−1 year−1 of which the maximum erosion (70–208 tons ha−1 year−1) was near the river channels and hilly areas. The sediment yield due to the erosion is as high as 148 tons ha−1 year−1 with an average of 4.3 tons ha−1 year−1. It was found that 2.06% of the total area falls under severe soil erosion, 13.34% under high erosion, 15.35% under moderate soil erosion while 69.25% of the area lies in the low (tolerable) soil erosion. Chakwal and Jhelum districts of the region are seriously affected by erosion owing to their topography and soil properties. The information generated in this study is a step forward towards proper planning and implementation of strategies to control the erosion and for protection of natural resources. It is, hence, necessary that suitable water harvesting structures be made to control water to prevent soil erosion and provision of water in the lean season in this region. Tree plantation and other erosion control practices such as strip cropping can also minimize soil erosion in this region.

Assessment of Soil Degradation and Agricultural Land Suitability for Sustainable Land Management in Alexandria and El-Behiera Governorates, Egypt

The old agricultural land in Egypt is under continuous threat by different forms of land degradation, especiallychemical degradation. This research aimed to (1) assessing and mapping of soil degradation status in some parts ofAlexandria and El-Behiera governorates, (2) addressing causes of soil degradation, and (3) developing a rationalagricultural land use options to increase land productivity. Soil and water samples were collected for the assessment ofsoil degradation and land suitability. Soil degradation was assessed based on the methodology developed by the Food andAgriculture Organization (FAO). Land suitability assessment was performed using the ALESarid-GIS model. Fieldinvestigations and results of soil analyses indicated that the major type of land degradation in the study area is thechemical soil degradation (soil salinization and alkalinization) and the main drivers of degradation are the inappropriateland management practices. The results of soil chemical degradation showed that most of the investigated area (٨٩%) ismoderately degraded soil, whereas the low degraded soils covers the remaining area (11%). Also, the results indicated thatthe whole investigated soils have a moderate level of biological degradation, which regards to the moderate level of soilorganic matter content. The results from ALESarid-GIS indicated that eighteen crops are considered the most suitable togrow in the investigated area. The suitability classes of these crops vary among highly suitable (S1), moderately suitable(S2) and marginally suitable (S3), but (S1+S2) of each crop covers more than 72% of the investigated area. Seven cropscan only be grown economically in in the highest levels of soil salinity and alkalinity in the study area, which are alfalfa,wheat, barley, onion, sugar beet, rice and pear, since only these crops are considered highly (S1) and moderately (S2)suitable to be grown in such levels of salinity and alkalinity

Can soil crusting be reduced through application of gypsum, organic waste, and phosphoric acid?

Soil crusting is a form of land degradation in which the breakdown of aggregates results in the formation of a thin impermeable layer on the soil surface. An earlier pilot trial indicated that application of paper waste, gypsum, phosphoric acid, and covering the soil surface with wire mesh showed potential for reducing soil crusting. This study was established to evaluate the use of products for reducing the severity of soil crusting, while also testing different approaches for measuring the severity and likelihood of soil crust formation. Gypsum was applied at 0.25 and 0.50 kg m–2 (low rate [LG] and high rate [HG], respectively), paper waste was applied at 1, 2.5, and 7.5 kg m–2 (low [LPW], moderate [MPW], and high [HPW] rates, respectively), and phosphoric acid was applied at 80 and 160 mL m–2 (low rate [LP] and high rate [HP], respectively). Combinations of these products were made including (1) wire mesh (WM) and 0.50 kg m–2 gypsum (WM + HG); (2) 0.50 kg m–2 gypsum and 80 mL m–2 phosphoric acid (HG + LP); (3) 2.5 kg m–2 paper waste, 0.50 kg m–2 gypsum, and 80 mL m–2 phosphoric acid (MPW + HG + LP); and (4) 7.5 kg m–2 paper waste and 160 mL m–2 phosphoric acid (HPW + HP). The likelihood of crust formation was inferred from aggregate stability determined by rainfall simulation and wet sieving, while the severity of soil crusting was inferred from crust density, hydraulic conductivity, and penetration resistance. The four measures of crust severity/likelihood were highly correlated with each other (R2 = 0.57 to 0.80). The HPW + HP, MPW + HG + LP, and MPW treatments increased hydraulic conductivity by 72%, 66%, and 45%, respectively; increased aggregate stability determined by rainfall simulation by 28%, 37%, and 39%, respectively; reduced surface density by 10%, 7%, and 6%, respectively; and reduced penetration resistance by 33%, 37%, and 34% as average at all five sampling dates (days 8, 14, 28, 71, and 197). Moreover, the high rate of gypsum significantly reduced bulk density by 7% and penetration resistance by 26%, yet had no effect on any other measure of crusting. Phosphoric acid (HP) significantly increased aggregate stability determined by rainfall simulation by 29% (days 8, 14, 28, and 71), reduced bulk density by 6% (days 8 and 14), and increased hydraulic conductivity at day 8 by 110%. Reduced severity and or likelihood of crust formation following application of gypsum and paper waste were attributed to the increase in calcium cations (Ca+2) and soil organic carbon (C). The paper waste and gypsum were the most effective amendments over the duration of the trial, while phosphoric acid reduced the severity of crust formation in the 14 days after application. Recommendations are provided on the efficiency of different approaches for measuring soil crusting, in which penetration resistance is preferable because of its high correlation with other measurements and being the least time consuming.

Slope Processes, Mass Movement and Soil Erosion: A Review

Soil erosion and land degradation are global problems and pose major issues in many countries. Both soil erosion and mass movement are two forms of land degradation and humans play important roles in these geomorphological processes. This paper reviews slope processes associated with mass movement and soil erosion and contributory factors, including physical and human agents. Acting together, these cause diverse geomorphological features. Slope processes are illustrated by reference to case studies from Brazil and UK. The causes and impacts of erosion are discussed, along with appropriate remedial bioengineering methods and the potential of the measures to prevent these types of environmental degradation. Although there are several agents of erosion, water is the most important one. Cultivation can promote soil erosion, due to ploughing and harvesting, which moves soil down slopes. Soil erosion and mass movement data would inform the viability of soil conservation practices. Integrated management of drainage basins offers a promising way forward for effective soil conservation and soil remedial bioengineering in Brazil and UK.

Rural settlements dynamics and the prospects of densification strategy in rural Bangladesh.

Given the year on year decrease of rural farmland and various forms of land degradation through the intrusion of non-farm land uses, the government of Bangladesh has drafted the agrarian reform strategies, primarily to protect the agricultural land from encroachment, conversion, and indiscriminate use. The draft Agricultural Land Protection and Land Use Bill since its inception in 2011 is facing serious uncertainties of implementation due to its borrowed nature from the developed contexts and inadequacy to recognize the local complexities. With a particular focus on the densification component of the draft bill, a semester-long design studio was conducted in consultation with the existing villagers to explore the practicability of the draft bill in the villages of Tetultala and Chhoygharia in the south-western coastal Bangladesh. The findings from the two villages hint that in Bangladesh, the unique and evolving nature of rural settlements dynamics that are disintegrating the rural society from farming practices and the farmland, thereby, unsettling the traditional village-morphology. The settlements dynamics vary from those of the western context; hence, there is an emerging need to build locally situated knowledge towards a feasible rural land reform.

Researching into Bio-Energy Change and Sustainable Land Use

Sustainable land management (SLM) (also sometimes referred to as “sustainable land use” by policy makers, developmental planners, and researchers) is a knowledge-based procedure that aims at integrating the management of land, water, biodiversity, and other environmental resources to meet human needs while sustaining ecosystem services and livelihoods. The term sustainable land management is used, for example, in regional planning and soil or environmental protection, as well as in property and estate management. The World Bank defines SLM as “a process in a charged environment between environmental protection and the guarantee claim of ecosystem services on the one hand”. On the other hand, it is about “productivity of agriculture and forestry with respect to demographic growth and increasing pressure in land use”. It is estimated that the human footprint has affected 83% of the global terrestrial land surface. Land use and land cover (LUCC) change has been the most visible indicator of the human footprint and the most important driver of loss of biodiversity and other forms of land degradation. Recent trends on global demand for food and bio-energy change (which are closely linked to food and energy price spikes and volatility) have raised concerns on the impact of LUCC change on biodiversity and other environmental impacts. This paper aims to assess the LUCC change and explores factors which could be addressed to ensure sustainable development. In terms of methodology employed, secondary data have been analyzed using descriptive research method. The paper concludes that integrated economic, geographic and ecological models are required to capture the multiple drivers of LUCC and objectives of ecosystems.

PERENCANAAN PENGGUNAAN LAHAN MELALUI PENDEKATAN PREDIKSI EROSI DAN KLASIFIKASI KEMAMPUAN LAHAN DI DAERAH ALIRAN SUNGAI KOLOH PASIRAN LOMBOK TIMUR

Erosion is a form of land degradation is very serious in Koloh Pasiran watershed. This condition perceived more severe by the fact that the understanding of the process of saving the natural resources of forest, soil and water have not received maximum attention. This is evidenced by the presence of illegal logging, forest fires around the area of the watershed during the dry season and flooding during every rainy season. Therefore, the research conducted with the aim to: 1) determine the level of erosion and soil and water conservation planning in the Koloh Pasiran watershed, 2) determine the land capability class in Koloh Pasiran watershed and 3) to plan land use capability classes based on erosion rate. Observations and sampling of soil samples for prediction of erosion, soil conservation and classification approach according, planning based on common land unit. This land unit maps obtained from the land use maps overlay by slope, soil and land use maps done by estimating the magnitude of the erosion equation USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) of Wischmeier and Smit (1978). Determine land capability class with land capability classification approach according Arsyad (1989). Land use planning and soil and water conservation in addition to using USLE equation also uses land capability classification according Arsyad (1989). The results show the level of erosion prediction calculation slight to very severe erosion. Mixture of garden soil with a 2% slope erosion rates relatively slight. Dry land with a slope of 2% classified as severe erosion and the shrub land with a slope of 2-3% erosion classified as severe to very severe. While in secondary forest land and primary forests with a slope of 2-25% relatively slight erosion. Land capability class in Koloh Pasiran watershed can be classified into class IV (3 units of land), class V (5 units of land), class VI (1 unit of land) and VIII (2 units of land). The limiting factors are: (e) the slopes are steep and severe erosion rate and (s) low water holding capacity. Direction of land use for high density mixed garden with bench terrace with good construction, dry with good bench terrace construction and given a booster plants around the lip of land, shrub land used for community forestry, agroporestry and natural forests, while for secondary forests and forest maintained primary sustainability

Land Degradation Assessment Using Residual Trend Analysis of GIMMS NDVI3g, Soil Moisture and Rainfall in Sub-Saharan West Africa from 1982 to 2012

Areas affected by land degradation in Sub-Saharan West Africa between 1982 and 2012 are identified using time-series analysis of vegetation index data derived from satellites. The residual trend (RESTREND) of a Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) time-series is defined as the fraction of the difference between the observed NDVI and the NDVI predicted from climate data. It has been widely used to study desertification and other forms of land degradation in drylands. The method works on the assumption that a negative trend of vegetation photosynthetic capacity is an indication of land degradation if it is independent from climate variability. In the past, many scientists depended on rainfall data as the major climatic factor controlling vegetation productivity in drylands when applying the RESTREND method. However, the water that is directly available to vegetation is stored as soil moisture, which is a function of cumulative rainfall, surface runoff, infiltration and evapotranspiration. In this study, the new NDVI third generation (NDVI3g), which was generated by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration-Goddard Space Flight Center Global Inventory Modeling and Mapping Studies (NASA-GSFC GIMMS) group, was used as a satellite-derived proxy of vegetation productivity, together with the soil moisture index product from the Climate Prediction Center (CPC) and rainfall data from the Climate Research Unit (CRU). The results show that the soil moisture/NDVI pixel-wise residual trend indicates land degraded areas more clearly than rainfall/NDVI. The spatial and temporal trends of the RESTREND in the region follow the patterns of drought episodes, reaffirming the difficulties in separating the impacts of drought and land degradation on vegetation photosynthetic capacity. Therefore, future studies of land degradation and desertification in drylands should go beyond using rainfall as a sole predictor of vegetation condition, and include soil moisture index datasets in the analysis.

Using species distribution models to select species resistant to climate change for ecological restoration of bowé in West Africa

AbstractBowalization is a particular form of land degradation and leads to lateral expansion of ferricrete horizons. The process occurs only in tropical regions. In this study, the most adapted and resistant species towards climate change were identified on bowé. The 15 most common bowé species of the subhumid and semi‐arid climate zones of Benin were submitted together with significant environmental variables (elevation, current bioclimatic variables, soil types) to three ecological niche modelling programmes (Maxent, Domain and GARP). For future prediction (2050), IPCC4/CIAT and IPCC5/CMIP5 climate data were applied. Asparagus africanus, Andropogon pseudapricus and Combretum nigricans were identified as the most resistant species for ecological restoration of bowé in the semi‐arid climate zone and Asparagus africanus, Detarium microcarpum and Lannea microcarpa in the subhumid climate zone. The ‘Pull’ strategies were identified as appropriate for ecological restoration of bowé in Benin.

GIS-Based Soil Erosion Modeling for Assessing Land Suitability in the Urban Watershed of Tallo River, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Urban watershed is a discrete and complex system where a diverse number of factors govern its quality and health. Soil erosion by water is the most dominant factor that determines a watershed quality, and considered as one of the most significant forms of land degradation that affects sustained productivity of land use. The principal aim of this paper is to utilise spatial-based soil erosion information to assess land suitability at a watershed level. The specific aim is three-fold: (i) to develop techniques based on a GIS in the parameterisation of a soil erosion model, which is designed for use at a large scale assessment; (ii) to assess and map the spatial distribution of average annual rate of soil losses in; (iii) to employ such related concept as soil loss tolerance to determine land suitability at a watershed level. An analytical procedure is used to analyse an urban watershed of Tallo River, in South Sulawesi, Indonesia, with a total area of 43,422 ha. The procedure is executed using RUSLE (Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation), in a GIS environment, utilising available information in the region (including climate, soil, slope, and land use and land conservation practices), and with the assistance of ground surveys. The results indicate that around 56.5% of the area experience annual soil loos of less than 1 ton/ha/year, while erosion rate of more than 25 ton/ha/year covers a total area of 8.9%. Due to a good ground cover in forested land, most of the slopping areas have actual soil losses of 1-5 ton/ha/year. This study reveals that areas categorized as high risk, where only forest cover allowed consist of 9.4%, and those with very low risk cover a total area of 5.4%. Most of the study region (around 84%) experience moderate and low erosion risk, and suitable for cropping with special management practices (CS) + perennial crops (PC) + grass (GR) + and forest (FR). This study suggests that the outputs of this modeling procedure can be used for the identification of land management units based on degradation levels, as well as the most suitable land use to be practiced on individual land units on a sustainable basis.

Crop Diversification and Environmental Conflicts in Kasaragod District of Kerala

The agricultural sector of Kerala in general and of Kasaragod district in particular has witnessed a paradigm shift in the cropping pattern away from food crops towards non-food crops, and from one non-food crop to another non-food crop as to capture benefits of emerging markets. These changes have caused severe challenges to the environment in the form of land degradation, groundwater depletion and chemical pollution. To elicit the facts and issues connected with this changing paradigm, the analysis in this paper has shown a significant decline in soil fertility and groundwater level, and over-use of chemical fertilisers in the plantation-dominated Kasaragod district.

Development of Software Application for the Assessment of Agricultural Traffic

The compaction of agricultural soils is a serious problem in the agricultural community due to it’s proven negative effects that can be seen as a form of land degradation. Due to agricultural traffic, applied stresses are transmitted to deeper depths and may alter physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. This paper outlines the structure of a computer application for the assessment of in field agricultural traffic, which is developed as a module within a program for soil compaction control that can be also used as a standalone application that can be installed on any PC or mobile device. The proposed computer application is designed to be used not only as a standalone application but also build in an application for soil compaction assessment. The application is a result of extensive literature and experimental research activities, so it uses proper input parameters data available literature and personal research data gathered by authors of this paper. Following the available studies are defined the input parameters, the general layout of the software application is showed and described, the general structure is analysed and the output data is mentioned. In this paper we designed a software application for agricultural traffic assessment, developed to be as a useful tool not only for in field traffic management but also for soil compaction management on long term, that can be used on small or large farms so the user will have a clear status of the traffic on the field.

ASSESSMENT OF LAND DEGRADATION IN WADI EL NATRUN AREA, WESTERN DESERT, EGYPT

Most forms of land degradation are human resource (mismanagement and misuse); some physical and chemical environmental factors are still considered. Quantitative assessment of land degradation and monitoring the changes in land qualities in Wadi El-Natrun are the main objective of this study. Physiographic map of the area was produced by using ETM+, ENVI 5.0 and ArcGIS10. Physiographic map used to determine soil profiles location and soil samples. From the physical and chemical analysis the results compared with the data extracted from Mohamed, (2011). Land degradation rate, relative extent, degree, and severity level in the study area were assessed. The results indicate that the dominant active land degradation features are; water logging, salinity, alkalinity and compaction. Based on the FAO/UNEP, (1979) program of degradation (rate, relative extent, degree, and severity) and the application on that data of water logged, salinity, alkalinity and compaction compared with Mohamed, (2011). The results indicate that the following: - there is no effect of compaction so there is no compaction degradation . Waterlogged degradation as water table depth changed from 2011 to 2013 as following ( 50-100 cm ) the degraded area increased from (234.32 to 341.28 km2 ) , ( 100-150 cm ) the soil improved and the degraded area decreased (from 356.31 to 218.42 km2) and ( > 150 cm) were improved. Salinity degradation as electrical conductivity(EC dS/m) data changed from ( 2011 to 2013 ) that the ( 8-16 dS/m ) the degraded area increased from ( 0.0 to 16.83 km2), ( 4-8 dS/m ) the soil improved and the degraded area decreased (from 190.86 to 110.43 km2) and ( 15 %) no change , ( 10-15% ) the soil improved and the degraded area decreased (from 437.98 to 190.82 km2) and ( <10 % ) the soil improved and the area increased (152.64 to 388.32 km2 )

English

The land use practices around Lake Nakivale Wetland have over the last five decades changed from dominantly cattle keeping to crop farming, human settlement and urbanisation. This change, has increased food production and security, it has come at a cost to the natural environment in form of land degradation, wetland encroachment, loss of wildlife habitats and crucial wetland resources. Based on a research conducted in Lake Nakivale Wetland in Isingiro District in Uganda, this paper assessed the cost residents incur as wetland resources experience external disturbances from poor land use practices. Collection of data involved a household survey, interviews, focused group discussions and wetland resource ranking. The impact analysis approach was used to estimate the value of the affected wetland resources. This was based on the market price and the concept of willingness to either pay or accept compensation for wetland resources. The findings indicate that cost of poor land use practices on vital wetland resources is enormous, estimated to be worth US $ 2,943,960.3 per annum and is expected to continue to increase in the future, putting the livelihoods of residents in dilemma. Sustainable land use management based on sound land use planning and restoration program is proposed to minimise the negative effects of land use on the wetland. Key words: Land use practices, wetland resources, livelihoods, sustainable land use management, land use planning, wetland resource value.

Semi-Arid Region Analysis of Soil Physicochemical Property in Mine Spoils and Phytoremediation Research

Semi-arid region of Soil repair in Mine spoils is a problem of worthy of attention and research, this paper assesses Fuxin mining area and YuanBaoShan mining area for test site, five kinds of site types are divided based on the investigation of mine spoils damage situation, and testing each sitetype of soil physical properties and the change of soil nutrient systematically, and doing the five kinds of sitetypes’phytoremediation research based on it. The evaluation results indicate: Mine spoils soil along with the increasing length of stopping discharging the gangue, the soil physical and chemical characteristics improve gradually. Through the research of vegetation and soil interaction relations we get the best Reclamation vegetation types of the Mine spoils. Mine spoils is an important form of land degradation, is one of the major environmental problems of today's world. This paper assesses Fuxin mining area and YuanBaoShan mining area for test site, testing each site type of soil physical properties and the change of soil nutrient systematically, and on the basis of experiments, putting forward the best Reclamation vegetation types for mine spoils.

Spatio-temporal patterns of agricultural expansion and its effect on watershed degradation: a case from the mountains of Nepal

Expansion of agricultural at the cost of forested land is a common cause of watershed degradation in the mountain zones of developing countries. Many studies have been conducted to demonstrate land use changes in such regions. However, current knowledge regarding the changes, driving forces and implications of such change within the context of watershed development is limited. This study analyses changes in spatial patterns of agricultural land use and their consequences for watershed degradation during the 1976–2000 period along an altitude gradient in a watershed in Nepal, by means of remote sensing, GIS and the universal soil loss equation. Estimated soil loss ranged from 589 to 620 t ha−1 y−1, while areas of extreme hazard severity (>100 t ha−1) increased from 9 to 14.5% from 1990 to 2000. Spatial distribution of soil loss in 2000 was characterized by 88% of total soil losses being from upland agricultural areas. The study determined that without considering other forms of land degradation, only water erosion was responsible for erosion of a substantial area in a short timeframe. Areas under upland cultivation are in an extremely vulnerable state, with these areas potentially no longer cultivable within a period of 6 years. As sustainability of the watershed is dependent on forests, continued depletion of forest resources will result in poor economic returns from agriculture for local people, together with loss of ecosystem services. Thus, in order to achieve the goal of watershed development, remaining forest lands must be kept under strict protection.

Spatial-based assessment of land use, soil erosion, and water protection in the Jeneberang valley, Indonesia

Soil erosion by water is considered as one of the most significant forms of land degradation that affects sustained productivity of agricultural land use and water quality. It is influenced by a considerable number of factors (including climate, soil, topography, land use and types of land management), so that the information on the spatial distribution of soil erosion rate and its related effects can be effectively employed as a baseline data for land use development and water protection. The principal aim of this study is three-fold: (i) to map existing land use; (ii) to assess and map the spatial distribution of average annual rate of soil losses in the study area; (iii) to evaluate spatial matching between existing and proposed land use including a distance analysis from the water body (the Bili-Bili Dam). An analytical procedures used, respectively, include supervised classification of satellite imagery, application of RUSLE (Revised USLE), and overlay analysis in a raster GIS environment, utilising available information in the region covering some parts of Jeneberang catchment, South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The results suggest that the outputs of this study can be used for the identification of land units on a cell-basis with different land use types, rate of soil loss, inconsistency between proposed and planned land use, as well as the threat of land degradation to the main river and the dam. The analytical procedures developed in this research may be useful in other areas, particularly in the studies related to the assessment and mapping of land use and erosion for the importance of sustainable land use at a relatively large area.