Form Of Differentiation Research Articles

Relationship between body mass index and cholesterol levels with histopathological grading of breast cancer.

Breast cancer, a global health problem with a high mortality rate, has several risk factors, including obesity and increased lipid profile. Postmenopausal obesity is associated with estrogen production from adipose tissue, while abnormal cell growth is triggered by insulin-like growth factor1 (IGF-1) and insulin. Obesity could be assessed by measuring body mass index (BMI). An increase in lipid profile signifies an increased risk for breast cancer. Histopathological findings in the form of grading and differentiation can indicate how serious the condition is. Breast cancer with good differentiation is always associated with a positive prognosis. This observational analytic study aims to determine the relationship between BMI and cholesterol levels based on the menopausal status and the histopathological grading findings of breast cancer patients. The observational cross-sectional study analyzed histopathological grading, total cholesterol level, and body mass index. Data were analyzed with Spearman rank correlation statistical test, and the results are significant when the p-value is <0.05. Analyzing the relationship between cholesterol levels and histopathological gradings indicated a moderate correlation. The results of another correlation test based on menopausal status showed a weak correlation value, while menopause was said to be significant, indicating a moderate correlation. However, results from the analysis of BMI data in the menopausal subject group were associated with histopathological assessment. There is a relationship between cholesterol levels and histopathological degrees in the two menopausal status groups. However, no relationship was found between BMI and the histopathological grades of breast cancer.

An allergy of society: on the question of how a societal “lockdown” becomes possible

PurposeGiven the form of functional differentiation of modern society, a far-reaching coordination of functional systems as a dissolution of their heterarchical relationship to each other, as was apparently possible in the social “lockdown” during the corona pandemic, should have been extremely unlikely. The purpose of this study is to explain how this was nevertheless achieved.Design/methodology/approachFrom the perspective of systems theory, social action in principle does not present itself as a problem but as a solution to (latent) social problems. In the sociological analysis presented here, it is therefore precisely a matter of uncovering or pointing out those (changed) social structures in which a social “lockdown” appears as a solution.FindingsThe paper explains that with the emergence of social media through applications such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok, a new force is establishing itself at the level of society as a system. It is one that is characterized by being highly vulnerable to moral communication. A susceptibility to morality manifests, on the one hand, through an individual differentiation of society made possible by social media – for example, in the emerging Chinese social credit system – and, on the other hand, through the specific communicative structures of the social media themselves. It is argued that social media, in the form of a moral authority with a lasting effect on society as a whole, make a significant contribution to realizing the social “lockdown.”Originality/valueThe originality of the paper results from the fact that the emergence of a new social phenomenon (“lockdown”) is explained.

Finding the Effect of Minor Surgery Under Propofol Anaesthesia on Brain BDNF in Pakistan

Introduction: Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is known to support neuronal survival, differentiation and several forms of synaptic plasticity, therefore BDNF plays an important role in synaptogenesis of the mammalian brain. Objectives: The main objective of the study is to analyse the effect of minor surgery under propofol anaesthesia on brain BDNF and cognition. Material and methods: This descriptive study was conducted in Allied Hospital Faisalabad during July 2019 to March 2020. Remembering that adult plasma BDNF concentrations are correlated with age, gender, and Body Mass Index (BMI), we planned to choose only male patients, from 40 to 60 years old, and with a BMI of 20 to 30. Results: The data was collected from 40 patients. In group A, BDNF plasma concentrations were 196.1 ± 36.7 pg/ml at baseline and decreased to 120.9 ± 17.6 pg/ml 15 minutes after anesthesia induction. At the time point of skin closure, the BDNF plasma concentration increased to 167.3 ± 19.9 pg/ml and remained high (154.9 ± 28.6 pg/ml) 5 minutes after extubation. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the BDNF plasma concentrations fell below the baseline (126.8 ± 28.2 pg/ml). In group B, the baseline BDNF plasma concentration was 173.8 ± 40.0 pg/ml, which was comparable with that in group A. Conclusion: It is concluded that general anesthesia could reverse the reduced BDNF plasma concentrations caused by anesthetics during and 24 hours after surgery

Tumor Biology Impacts Survival in Surgically Managed Primary Hepatic Vascular Malignancies

BackgroundHepatic angiosarcoma (AS) and hepatic epithelioid hemangioendothelioma (HEHE) are rare primary hepatic vascular malignancies (PHVM) that remain poorly understood. To guide management, we sought to identify factors and trends predicting survival after surgical intervention using a national database. Materials and methodsIn a retrospective analysis of the National Cancer Database patients with a diagnosis of PHVM were identified. Clinicopathologic factors were extracted and compared. Overall survival (OS) was estimated and predictors of survival were identified. ResultsThree hundred ninty patients with AS and 216 with HEHE were identified. Only 16% of AS and 36% of HEHE patients underwent surgery. The median OS for patients who underwent surgical intervention was 97 months, with 5-year OS of 30% for AS versus 69% for HEHE patients (P< 0.001). Tumor biology strongly impacted OS, with AS histology (Hazard Ratio [HR] of 3.61 [1.55-8.42]), moderate/poor tumor differentiation (HR = 3.86 [1.03-14.46]) and tumor size (HR = 1.01 [1.00-1.01]) conferring worse prognosis. The presence of metastatic disease in the surgically managed cohort (HR = 5.22 [2.01-13.57]) and involved surgical margins (HR = 3.87 [1.59-9.42]), were independently associated with worse survival. ConclusionsIn this national cohort of PHVM, tumor biology, in the form of angiosarcoma histology, tumor differentiation and tumor size, was strongly associated with worse survival after surgery. Additionally, residual tumor burden after resection, in the form of positive surgical margins or the presence of metastasis, was also negatively associated with survival. Long-term clinical outcomes remain poor for patients with the above high-risk features, emphasizing the need to develop effective forms of adjuvant systemic therapies for this group of malignancies.

FIGO Grade 3 Endometrioid Adenocarcinomas With Diffusely Aberrant β-Catenin Expression: An Aggressive Subset Resembling Cutaneous Pilomatrix Carcinomas.

Uterine endometrioid adenocarcinomas are known for their morphologic plasticity. In addition to a multiplicity of metaplasias, uterine endometrioid adenocarcinomas may also undergo high-grade divergent differentiation in the form of high-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma, neuroectodermal differentiation or carcinosarcoma; others may dedifferentiate completely. Here we describe 5 cases of uterine endometrioid adenocarcinomas with high-grade divergent differentiation showing a striking morphologic and immunophenotypic resemblance to cutaneous pilomatrix carcinoma. Specifically, the high-grade component in all cases exhibited solid, basaloid morphology with conspicuous tumor cell necrosis and the presence of shadow cells, accompanied by diffusely aberrant (nuclear and cytoplasmic) β-catenin expression as well as variably diffuse CDX2 expression. In addition, the high-grade component in all cases showed loss of ER and PAX8 expression, retained MMR expression, wild-type p53 expression, patchy p16 expression, and diffusely positive cytokeratin expression (AE1/AE3 and CK7); at least focal neuroendocrine marker expression was present in all cases. CK20 was negative in all cases, with the exception of very focal staining in a single case (2% of tumor cells). All 5 of our tumors had at least a focal conventional FIGO grade 1 component. In all 4 cases tested, the low-grade component retained both PAX8 and ER expression and had, at best, focally aberrant β-catenin expression. Two of our cases had molecular analysis performed and both harbored mutations in exon 3 of CTNNB1 as expected; molecular analysis also revealed that both cases lacked POLE or TP53 mutations and showed no microsatellite instability. The tumors in this series were uniformly aggressive. Four of the 5 patients in our cohort had available follow-up information; of these, 3/4 died of their disease within 14 mo of diagnosis and the fourth patient had distant metastatic disease at presentation and is alive with disease 1 mo following diagnosis. The 1 patient without follow-up information also had distant metastatic disease at presentation and was lost to follow-up 17 mo later. The cases described in this series (1) represent a highly aggressive CTNNB1-mutated subset of the "no specific molecular profile" category of endometrioid adenocarcinomas; (2) illustrate a form of high-grade divergent differentiation resembling cutaneous pilomatrix carcinoma already described in carcinomas at other anatomic sites; and (3) underscore the difficulty in recognizing this phenotype at distant metastatic sites, which are frequent even at the time of presentation, given the consistent loss of ER and PAX8 expression and concurrent CDX2 expression.

Ion-adsorption rare earth ores of China

Geology and geochemistry of China’s ion-adsorption rare earth ores are discussed. The structure and material constitution of Lognan, Huashan, Guposhan and Heling deposits are compared. The weathered layer structure, as well as the distribution, differentiation and occurrence forms of rare earth elements (REE) in the weathered layer are described. The prospecting indicators and criteria of readily dissociated adsorbed REE ore are identified to find this type ores in the territory of Russia. The weathered layer enclosing ion-adsorption rare earth ore features specific differentiation of REE. General composition of such ores is governed by the composition of the primary rare earth mineralization in mother granites. If granites contain much yttrium and heavy lanthanides, then ion-adsorption rare earth ore contain also much yttrium and heavy lanthanides. Regarding differentiation of REE, yttrium and heavy lanthanides mainly concentrate in the middle, most clayey part of the weathered layer, while cerium accumulates in subsurface lateritic soil. The prime feature of ion-adsorption rare earth ore is the prevalence of readily dissociated REE, which can reach a quantity of 80% and more but not less than a half. The rest REE concentrate in relict rock-forming minerals and accessories. The quantitative estimation of adsorption form of REE is necessary for the geological and economic appraisal of a deposit. It is assumed that the quantity of readily soluble REE should be not less than 0.05–50% of the total content. Russia has many regions with such geotectonic environment. It is required to explore ion-adsorption rare earth ore occurrences in these regions.

Genomic variations in patients with myelodysplastic syndrome and karyotypes without numerical or structural changes

Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is an onco-hematologic disease with distinct levels of peripheral blood cytopenias, dysplasias in cell differentiation and various forms of chromosomal and cytogenomic alterations. In this study, the Chromosomal Microarray Analysis (CMA) was performed in patients with primary MDS without numerical and/or structural chromosomal alterations in karyotypes. A total of 17 patients was evaluated by GTG banding and eight patients showed no numerical and/or structural alterations. Then, the CMA was carried out and identified gains and losses CNVs and long continuous stretches of homozygosity (LCSHs). They were mapped on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, X, and Y. Ninety-one genes that have already been implicated in molecular pathways important for cell viability were selected and in-silico expression analyses demonstrated 28 genes differentially expressed in mesenchymal stromal cells of patients. Alterations in these genes may be related to the inactivation of suppressor genes or the activation of oncogenes contributing to the evolution and malignization of MDS. CMA provided additional information in patients without visible changes in the karyotype and our findings could contribute with additional information to improve the prognostic and personalized stratification for patients.

The Many Faces of Teacher Differentiation: Using Q Methodology to Explore Teachers Preferences for Differentiated Instruction

Differentiated instruction occurs when teachers use students’ level of readiness, interests, and learning preferences to adjust the content, process, or products, which increases engagement and academic performance. However, teachers cannot offer every form of differentiation to every student all the time. There exist limits of resources as well as an essential balance that teachers need to make in terms of benefits for student learning on the one hand and classroom efficiency on the other. Additionally, the choices teachers make in terms of differentiation are also rooted in and stem from their personal beliefs systems. The goal of this research was to investigate teachers’ preferences for differentiating their instruction by using Q methodology. 32 teachers, coming from a single Dutch secondary school, completed a paper version of a Q sort containing 33 statements. Three groups of teachers were identified who emphasized 1) content mastery over students’ interests, 2) offering options over content growth, and 3) students’ interests or experiences over deliberate teaching. Therefore investigating teacher’s personal differentiation preferences will offer insight into what teachers choose to focus on in their differentiation, as well as, what teachers to not to emphasize. Each cluster is explored in terms of possible effects on student learning. Additionally, the implications for teacher development are also discussed per cluster.

Конкуренция сегодня: процесс или результат?

Digital economy has significantly changed business reality. The radical transformations are ubiquitous. New patterns feature economic behaviour of market participants, their interactions, their business models and their market activities. What about competition? What forms of competitive conduct have lost importance in contemporary digital economy? And what are the newest strategies that enhance competitiveness of the firms? Which digital business practices could limit competition? And which of them could stimulate business rivalry? Digitalization has changed many, in not all, of our traditional conceptual visions in the area of competition, market, market power, relevant market actors. The nature of competition itself is under scrupulous investigation. What conclusions could we draw from current theoretical and empirical analyses of competition mechanism? First of all, we deal with new forms of competition. The old Schumpeterian question – whether competition is a creative innovative destruction or it leads only to unfair elimination of competitors from the market – has arisen again nowadays. Online competition has two radically different outcomes. On the one hand, lower transaction costs, more possibilities to compare prices and assortment, expanding markets beyond geographical limits, low entry barriers reinforce rivalry. On the other hand, online activity of the firms can mitigate competitive pressure though new forms of product differentiation and usage of phantom strategies, phantom products, phantom plans. In order to increase their overall competitiveness, firms have elaborated an O2O (online-to-offline) business model that is allowed to utilize virtual and actual activity at the same time. Restaurant business, cosmetic industry, taxi deals are examples of its successful implementation. Is more competition better for consumers? This concept has been considered doubtful. Digital competitive pressure has led to a novel format of product differentiation, that is, targeted product design. Unlike traditional view in line with Salop circular model, contemporary firms choose product strategies that target as little individuals as possible. The less the circle of potential clients is, the less their price elasticity would be, and the weaker price rivalry might become. Traditional concept views competition as a Markov stochastic process. Contemporary analyses demonstrate more complicated nature of competitive mechanism. Online and offline innovations transform competition into non-linear process with “humps and jumps”, the outcomes of which are not always in the interests of consumers’ welfare.

Finding the Effect of Minor Surgery Under Propofol Anaesthesia on Brain BDNF in Pakistan

Introduction: Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is known to support neuronal survival, differentiation and several forms of synaptic plasticity, therefore BDNF plays an important role in synaptogenesis of the mammalian brain. Objectives: The main objective of the study is to analyse the effect of minor surgery under propofol anaesthesia on brain BDNF and cognition. Material and methods: This descriptive study was conducted in Allied Hospital Faisalabad during July 2019 to March 2020. Remembering that adult plasma BDNF concentrations are correlated with age, gender, and Body Mass Index (BMI), we planned to choose only male patients, from 40 to 60 years old, and with a BMI of 20 to 30. Results: The data was collected from 40 patients. In group A, BDNF plasma concentrations were 196.1 ± 36.7 pg/ml at baseline and decreased to 120.9 ± 17.6 pg/ml 15 minutes after anesthesia induction. At the time point of skin closure, the BDNF plasma concentration increased to 167.3 ± 19.9 pg/ml and remained high (154.9 ± 28.6 pg/ml) 5 minutes after extubation. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the BDNF plasma concentrations fell below the baseline (126.8 ± 28.2 pg/ml). In group B, the baseline BDNF plasma concentration was 173.8 ± 40.0 pg/ml, which was comparable with that in group A. Conclusion: It is concluded that general anesthesia could reverse the reduced BDNF plasma concentrations caused by anesthetics during and 24 hours after surgery

ТЕОРЕТИЧНІ ЗАСАДИ ДИФЕРЕНЦІЙОВАНОЇ РОБОТИ УЧНІВ ПОЧАТКОВИХ КЛАСІВ З ТЕКСТАМИ: ДО ПИТАННЯ ПРО ФОРМИ ДИФЕРЕНЦІАЦІЇ

The article focuses on the forms of differentiation as an important aspect of the theoretical foundations of differentiated work of primary school students with texts. The bases and criteria, directions, forms and types, kinds and ways, levels of differentiation offered by scientists and methodologists are analyzed. In particular, according to P. Sikorsky, the basics of differentiated learning include the differentiation of goals, objectives, content of education, forms of learning. According to R. de Groot, the components of the educational (sub) system (state education system, school, classes) are levels (macro level, meso level and micro level), and, accordingly, differentiation between schools, differentiation between classes or streams, differentiated learning of groups of students ; the result of combining different areas of differentiation (educational goals, content of education and time, types of educational activities, etc.) in the category (forms of differentiation): differentiation by time, conditions or goals of education. Types of differentiated learning are revealed. It was found that in scientific and methodological sources, external and internal differentiation are considered forms of differentiation or its types. Different views of scientists on the essence of external and internal differentiation are considered: first, it is "external" ("profile") differentiation and "internal" ("level") differentiation, (respectively – differentiation of training and differentiated training); secondly – external differentiation, which is divided into level (for primary school) and profile (for high school), internal differentiation (teaching all students in a common curriculum, without creating separate groups or classes); third – external (profile) and internal (level) differentiation. According to O. Savchenko, in primary school external differentiation is applied by creating educational institutions of different types, different conditions for teaching students, using different programs; internal differentiation affects the content of tasks, duration of tasks, etc. Ways to use external and internal differentiation are clarified. The forms and methods of differentiation that are the most optimal for effective differentiated work of primary school students with texts are outlined. Key words: differentiation of training, forms of differentiation of training, types and ways of differentiation of training, training of pupils of initial classes, work with texts, differentiated work with texts.

ОНТОЛОГІЧНИЙ ТА ЕПІСТЕМОЛОГІЧНИЙ АСПЕКТИ СУЧАСНОЇ ОБСЕРВАЦІЙНО-ВИМІРЮВАЛЬНОЇ СИТУАЦІЇ У КОСМОЛОГІЇ

Сучасна космологія знаходиться на роздоріжжі. Нестиковки вимірювань значень сталої Габбла – універсальної константи Всесвіту, що характеризує його глобальне розширення – призвели до виникнення в космології нетривіальної ситуації. Запропонована низка загальних наукових ідей для її тлумачення та подолання. З філософської точки зору в ній можна виокремити онтологічний (припущення про існування нової невідомої матеріальної субстанції) та епістемологічний (припущення про відкриття нових фізичних законів та необхідність побудови постквантово-релятивістських теорій) аспекти. Спираючись на модифіковану структурно-номінативну реконструкцію наукових теорій, висувається метатеоретична гіпотеза, що розвиток космологічних теорій буде відбуватися шляхом узгоджених змін їхніх підсистем.

Gender stereotypes can explain the gender-equality paradox

The so-called "gender-equality paradox" is the fact that gender segregation across occupations is more pronounced in more egalitarian and more developed countries. Some scholars have explained this paradox by the existence of deeply rooted or intrinsic gender differences in preferences that materialize more easily in countries where economic constraints are more limited. In line with a strand of research in sociology, we show instead that it can be explained by cross-country differences in essentialist gender norms regarding math aptitudes and appropriate occupational choices. To this aim, we propose a measure of the prevalence and extent of internalization of the stereotype that "math is not for girls" at the country level. This is done using individual-level data on the math attitudes of 300,000 15-y-old female and male students in 64 countries. The stereotype associating math to men is stronger in more egalitarian and developed countries. It is also strongly associated with various measures of female underrepresentation in math-intensive fields and can therefore entirely explain the gender-equality paradox. We suggest that economic development and gender equality in rights go hand-in-hand with a reshaping rather than a suppression of gender norms, with the emergence of new and more horizontal forms of social differentiation across genders.

The influence of brand experiences on consumer-based brand equity

In markets where products and services have become similar, with no major functional differences and where consumer choices are more and more influenced by emotional aspects rather than by rational thinking, experiences have surfaced as the main form of differentiation between companies. More than the inherent characteristics of products or services perse, brands become a source of differentiation of companies, with its role expanded from an assembly of attributes to a sum of experiences. This investigation in the experiential marketing area aims to understand the dimensions of the experiences that have an influence on consumers and how do these experiences have influence on consumer-based brand equity. Based on a quantitative study, the results show that brand experience has a positive influence on consumer-based brand equity. Sensory and emotional experiences evidenced a higher influence in all the dimensions of brand equity. Multigroup analysis also shows that intellectual experience triggers brand equity consumers in consumer with positive brand behavior.

Making Intensity of Efforts the Same: Commensuration Work in Target-setting Practices

Extant literature on target-setting indicates that responding to achievability-related criticisms towards ex ante targets through repair actions are of significance in restoring fairness and maintaining the legitimacy of performance systems. By drawing on empirical materials on responses to unfairness criticisms raised against target-setting practices in a bank, the study shows that such legitimation work also requires responding to equity-related criticisms. Equity implies that, when situations differ, targets must be differentiated to make the intensity of efforts the same. This study shows that legitimately differentiating targets requires an original and highly complex commensuration work. This work is original because compared to prior commensuration studies it concerns the commensuration of efforts and not of entities. This work is complex because it is difficult to account for all differences during target-setting and because such differentiation can be made mechanically and discretionally, each form of differentiation bringing its own source of illegitimacy. Moreover, it is also complex because it is a distributed work, involving numerous actors with multiple concerns. Such commensuration work then appears to be continuous and dynamic. This complements prior studies in target-setting, which have focussed mainly on dyadic relations between a superior and a subordinate and on single-period adjustments to targets.

The Imaginary Dress. An Interdisciplinary Fashion Approach Among Sociological, Anthropological, and Psychological Orientations

This article presents an interdisciplinary approach to fashion theory, in support of those studies in the field of subcultures and alternative lifestyles. The thesis of this work is that fashion shows the lasting correlation between forms of consumption, relationship, communication processes, cultural practices, systems and structures of production. The social meanings of the “objects of culture” are continually renegotiated in the relationship not only with each other but also with the context, while highlighting forms of opposition, conformity, differentiation and symbolic resistance. They communicate changes in the social structure, which are well manifested in the field of fashion. This complexity of fashion would require a joint effort from social scientists, but this does not happen, due to the theories of fashion continuing to be fragmented. The article underlines the importance of an “interdisciplinary approach” central to recognizing some theories of fashion and the cultural significance of self-fashioning, including not only clothing but also body alterations such as tattooing and piercing. Fashion represents a complement and reflects far deeper and more structured social transformations and events. It analyses specific anthropological and psycho-sociological theories considered essential in the development of fashion studies. Duesenberry and the demonstration effect is discussed, along with “the objects” of Baudrillard, considering the importance of the idea of circularity between production and consumption proposed by Isherwood & Douglas. The theories of Bourdieu and Yonnet are also described, along with the approach of cultural studies proposed by CCCS of Birmingham and Polhemus. The theories presented in the article are useful as theoretical patterns for the study of alternative lifestyles and youth fashion styles. From the analysis of the theories presented in this article, we can argue specific research subjects in the study of fashion style and its relationship with youth sub-cultures, starting from the hypothesis presented in the conclusions that consider fashion as a technique of identity exercise, of socialization to a new social role.

The clinical significance of computer capillaroscopy for differential diagnosis of the respiratory tract diseases in children

Computerized capillaroscopy of the nail bed is a non-invasive and most accessible method for studying microcirculation parameters in children; it is effectively used in a wide variety of pediatric pathologies. However, there are only few studies in this promising direction in children with acute and chronic bronchopulmonary diseases.Objective. To evaluate the morpho-functional features of capillary blood flow in children with the respiratory system diseases of infectious and allergic genesis and to evaluate their clinical significance.Materials and method. 238 children aged from 2 to 17 years with acute and chronic respiratory diseases were examined in the in-patient and outpatient hospitals. Along with traditional clinical methods all patients underwent computerized capillaroscopy of the nail bed to assess the morphological and functional state of the microvasculature.Results. Children with allergic diseases of the respiratory tract are characterized not only by pronounced structural changes in the capillaries in the form of weak differentiation at the level of capillaries of the third tier, but also by functional disorders of the capillary bed. They include a change in the parameters of all parts of the capillary and a marked increase in the length of the perivascular zone, interconnected with the activity level of chronic allergic inflammation. These changes were most pronounced in patients with bronchial asthma. The patients with infectious diseases of the respiratory system are characterized by a change in microcirculation parameters predominantly in the venous section of the capillaries, they are more pronounced in patients with lower respiratory tract diseases rather than with upper respiratory tract diseases.Conclusion. Structural and morpho-functional changes in microcirculation revealed by computerized nail capillaroscopy of the nail bed can be used as additional differential diagnostic criteria in the algorithms for the diagnosis of allergic diseases of the respiratory tract, which will contribute to the early detection of this pathology and timely therapy.

The future of health professions education: Emerging trends in the United States.

The future of health professions education: Emerging trends in the United States.

Comparative Secularities: Tracing Social and Epistemic Structures beyond the Modern West

Abstract In view of the questionability of the concept “religion” as an analytical category for the investigation of pre-modern, non-Western cultures, how can one still pursue the history of religion or historical sociology of religion? Roughly speaking, scholars of religion can be placed between two poles with regard to this question: (1) those who reject the cross-cultural use of “religion” as a comparative concept and (2) those who believe they cannot do without it. We propose an approach that acknowledges the cultural dependence and historicity of concepts such as “religion” and the “secular,” while still conducting historical research on pre-colonial non-Western societies relevant to the study of both. Our approach aims to investigate the emergence of social and epistemic structures in various cultures—forms of differentiation and distinction—that have enabled the reorganisation of socio-cultural formations into religions and thus facilitated the formation of “multiple secularities” in global modernity.

Introduction Providence and Circumstance, Reverence and Deference: Preliminary Remarks on ‘Kinship’, ‘Patronage’, ‘Power’ and Conditions of Opportunity

Abstract This preliminary overview aims primarily to make plausible that kinship is an attribution, that is, that it is tied to observations as uses of distinctions. However, observation is contingent, not arbitrary, and it both requires and generates ontologies on a case-by-case basis. The claim that kinship is resolvable into ‘relatedness’ runs into this very impasse of the notion of indifferent arbitrariness. For if kinship were indeed merely a synonym for relatedness, i. e., for inclusions, the question would arise as to what is excluded and what is not excluded concerning which arrangement. However, if one follows the suggestion made here that kinship is a medium of communication in which forms, i. e., distinctions, can be inscribed, one can turn to the classical functionalist question of how these forms have been deployed culturally and across social-evolutionary ruptures, and perhaps functionally equivalently. If it is the case that kinship is based on distinctions, the question of their respective social environments also becomes interesting for the observers of these observations. Therefore, the sketch also refers to attributions and contextures as conditions of the possibility of distinctions in this case. Thus, patronage can be brought into play as a phenomenon in the environment of kinship. As a hypothesis, it is formulated that patronage parasitically participates in the genealogical and functional forms of differentiation of pre-modern and modern societies, respectively.