Form Of Cost-benefit Analysis Research Articles

Supporting social connection for people living with dementia: lessons from the findings of the TRIO study

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to share the learning concerning how services and the paid carers working in them can support people living with dementia (PLWD) and their unpaid carers to overcome social isolation. This learning comes from the key findings from a Social Return on Investment (SROI) evaluation of a Shared Lives (SL) Day support service, known as TRIO.Design/methodology/approachSROI is a form of cost-benefit analysis that captures and monetises stakeholder outcomes. The SROI evaluation included a rapid evidence review, an interview study and a questionnaire study. The learning shared is drawn from the interview and questionnaire data that explored the reported outcomes relating to social connection, which included data related to participating in meaningful activities, confidence and independence.FindingsPLWD who accessed the SL Day support service experienced better social connection, a sense of control over their activities (including their social activities) and community presence. A key foundation of these outcomes was the meaningful relationship that developed between the PLWD, their unpaid carer and the paid carer.Research limitations/implicationsThis evaluation was a pilot study with a small, albeit representative sample size.Practical implicationsThe learning suggests feasible and effective ways for paid carers to support the social connection of PLWD and their unpaid carers with their wider community.Originality/valueThere has been little exploration of how community-based short breaks (like SL Day support) can enhance social connection. The authors drew on a social relational model lens to illustrate how this service type had supported successful outcomes of community and social inclusion for PLWD.

Rethinking public infrastructure megaproject performance: Theorizing alternative benefits, and the need for open science in project research

Megaprojects to deliver public infrastructure are said to perform terribly, yet governments continue to initiate them. Though irrationality and biases may play some role, there may be other explanations for these decisions. By building on Hirschman's Hiding Hand and Flyvbjerg's concept of megaproject sublimes, and drawing upon institutional theory, this conceptual article advances the hypothesis that formal cost-benefit analysis is inherently bounded, and may fail to account for diffuse benefits that may support the commencement of public projects. Flyvbjerg's megaproject sublimes are used to construct a framework of such benefits, and proposed methods to test and substantiate them. This explanation challenges the orthodox view of megaproject performance, offers a solution to the megaproject paradox, and demonstrates the critical need for open data and open science practices in project research.

Strict Products Liability 2.0: The Triumph of Judicial Reasoning Over Mainstream Tort Theory

Abstract Strict products liability has evolved in a manner that is widely misunderstood. The liability rule was first formulated to govern defective products that did not minimally perform one of their ordinary functions as expected by consumers—a malfunction that violates the implied warranty of quality. After adopting this rule, courts began applying it to products that did not malfunction and found that a test for defect based on consumer expectations often is indeterminate or can otherwise unduly limit liability in an important class of cases. To address these problems, most courts adopted the risk-utility test, a form of cost-benefit analysis that functions like the negligence standard of reasonable care. Relying on these cases, the Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability embraced the risk-utility test, jettisoned the consumer expectations test, and characterized strict products liability as a misleading label that perpetuates confusion about liability being strict when it instead is based on negligence. In response, a clear majority of courts have rejected this negligence-based framework and affirmed the continued vitality of strict products liability. Puzzled by this unexpected development, mainstream scholars claim that courts are confused by the rhetoric of strict products liability. The prevailing scholarly opinion about this matter is confused; its fixation on negligence ignores the implied warranty rationale for strict products liability. Having been largely formulated as a rule of contract law, the implied warranty is under-theorized as a tort doctrine. Once adequately developed, the tort version of the implied warranty shows why courts have transformed the rule of strict products liability from the last century into a more comprehensive regime—“strict products liability 2.0”—that relies on consumer expectations to incorporate the risk-utility test into the framework of strict products liability. As compared to ordinary negligence liability, the implied warranty defines the safety problem in the normatively appropriate manner, thereby sharpening the inquiry about what’s at stake. In dismissing this important development, mainstream tort theory relies on legal categories that fundamentally differ from the ones courts have used to develop strict products liability with analogical reasoning. Scholars have either resorted to overly general theories of tort liability or have otherwise focused on narrow doctrinal questions. By not engaging in the mid-level categorical theorizing required by analogical reasoning, the mainstream position could not see how this characteristic form of judicial reasoning has created the substantively sound regime of strict products liability 2.0.

The limited usefulness of the proportionality principle

Abstract The proportionality principle is used in constitutional law and administrative law worldwide. We argue that this doctrinal method is theoretically flawed and often practically not useful. Our major arguments are that, first, the proportionality principle is an ill-suited tool for legislative and administrative decision-making, because it is, in essence, an incomplete form of cost-benefit analysis, as it systematically ignores certain costs and benefits. Welfare-maximizing measures, as a result, may fail to pass the test of proportionality analysis. Second, representative of legal scholars’ efforts to theorize proportionality, the German theorist Robert Alexy’s influential Paretian formulation of the proportionality principle makes it either toothless or fatal. Alexy’s weight formula is not useful in comparing multiple means. Third, the use of the proportionality principle for constitutional review by courts may create an undesirable ex ante effect and may fall prey to its inherent loss aversion which cannot be easily avoided through re-framing.

Covering the last mile for vaccination: Feasibility and acceptability of traditional birth attendant-based referral system in hard-to-reach areas in rural Pakistan.

BackgroundPakistan has a decent network of community-based workers including lady health workers (LHWs) and vaccinators. However, a major section of the population is not covered by LHWs/vaccinators, labeled here as hard-to-reach (HTR) areas, where immunization coverage is also considerably low. This study explored the feasibility of engagement of traditional birth attendants (TBAs) to improve EPI vaccination coverage in HTR areas in rural Sindh, Pakistan.MethodsThis implementation research was conducted in two sub-districts of Sukkur (a district in Sindh Province). In an HTR selected intervention arm, TBAs were trained for vaccination and monetary incentives were provided to counsel and refer mothers for vaccination. While LHWs covered areas in the adjacent sub-district were provided with refresher training for vaccination only without any monetary incentive, and were considered as control arm. Considering the inherent differences in intervention and comparison group (HTR intervention area being worse regarding infrastructure and access), between groups and within group change in knowledge of TBA/LHWs and vaccination coverage was assessed before and after the intervention. Furthermore, focus group discussions were conducted with vaccinators, TBAs and LHWs and in-depth interviews with supervisors of vaccinators.ResultsTBAs and LHWs’ vaccine related knowledge increased significantly after training (pretest vs post test score: 10.5 to 15.4). The BCG coverage improved 74.1% (percentage change) in TBA arm. While completion of vaccination (ie, Penta-3 coverage) increased by 147% from baseline following the intervention. The TBAs, LHWs, vaccinators and their supervisors all welcomed the initiative and considered it as a feasible option.ConclusionsInvolvement of TBAs’ to form a referral system has potential to improve vaccine coverage and completion in HTR areas in Pakistan. The system is acceptable to the population and implementation is feasible due to availability of TBAs. However, in order to sustain the initiative minimal incentive need to be provided to TBAs to improve the vaccination coverage. Compared to establishing the infrastructure in HTR the intervention seems less costly however, it requires formal cost-effective or cost-benefit analysis.

SPRINTing to Innovation: Children's Hospital of Philadelphia's Strategic Approach to Discovering Its Untapped Innovation Potential.

There is a clear and urgent need for health care innovation in the United States. Hospital employees routinely recognize pain points that affect care delivery and are in a unique position to propose innovative and practical solutions, yet leaders rarely solicit ideas for investment and development from frontline providers and staff, revealing an untapped resource with innovation potential. To address these deficiencies, the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia expanded its innovation infrastructure with the competition-based SPRINT program in 2015. All hospital employees are encouraged to apply with early-stage innovative ideas, and if selected, are provided with business, legal, technical, and scientific project management support to help accelerate their projects toward commercial viability. SPRINT was modeled around 4 core tenets: (1) small, dynamic, and attentive project manager-led teams; (2) low barriers to entry; (3) emphasis on outreach; and (4) fostering innovators. Over its first 4 cycles from 2015 to 2018, 271 innovative teams applied to the SPRINT program, which led to support for 30 projects (11% acceptance rate). About a quarter of the projects each year were submitted by physician-led teams (mean 23%), a third by nonphysician clinical providers (mean 33%), and almost half were submitted by employees without direct patient contact (mean 44%). Nurses have emerged as the largest applicant group. Eleven of the SPRINT-supported projects (37%) resulted in commercial endpoints. SPRINT has proven to be an effective model for supporting institution-wide, employee-driven health care innovation, especially among frontline clinical and nonclinical personnel. Critical next steps for the program include a formal cost-benefit analysis and the earlier participation of technology transfer and intellectual property experts to improve the commercialization roadmap for many SPRINT projects.

Rapid fluorescence in situ hybridisation optimises induction therapy for acute myeloid leukaemia.

Rapid fluorescence in situ hybridisation optimises induction therapy for acute myeloid leukaemia.

A cost-benefit analysis of 3D scanning technology for crime scene investigation

Properly and thoroughly documenting a crime scene is of utmost importance in solving a crime, yet the process is often difficult and labor intensive. 3D scanning technology allows for the rapid acquisition of highly detailed 3D models of a physical environment. In recent years, adoption of 3D scanning technology has increased amongst crime scene investigation (CSI) units across the world to aid in the investigative process. The technology allows investigators to analyze crime scenes at a later point in time with a scanned 3D model. Unfortunately, the adoption cost of this technology remains a detractor to many CSI units. The presented research seeks to better understand whether investing in this technology results in an overall benefit for CSI units, and if so, when and how? To answer these questions, the research team developed a formal cost-benefit analysis algorithm for 3D scanning technology adoption. Considerations of the algorithm were influenced by actual 3D scanning results of mock crime scenes, together with a focus group of crime scene investigators that discussed the technology. A 100,000 count Monte-Carlo simulation of the developed cost-benefit algorithm enabled researchers to seek an answer to the question of adoption. The results of the simulation are presented in this document as well as through an interactive web application.

Cost-benefit analysis of residential sprinklers – Application of a judgement value method

It is common for agencies around the world to conduct some form of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) when proposing an investment in a safety measure. Since resources are limited, expenditure on one particular safety measure reduces the availability of those resources for other measures. Due to finite financial resources, an investment in a safety scheme thus requires a trade-off. As such, the objective of a CBA is to assess whether the proposed measure provides a net-benefit to society or whether resources would be better directed elsewhere.Fire safety measures, such as sprinkler systems, are one means to reduce the risk posed by fire in buildings. Sprinkler systems have a long record of property and life protection but there is a cost associated with their installation and ongoing maintenance. For many years various agencies have examined whether sprinkler systems should be mandated in some or all buildings within their jurisdiction, and as a result have conducted different forms of CBA. However, there are a number of challenges when carrying out such assessments particularly when it comes to placing a value on a preventable fatality.This paper revisits previous CBA studies available in the literature for the installation of residential (domestic) sprinkler systems in single family dwellings. This paper applies recent work to extend the J-value methodology which employs the life quality index (LQI) concept as a means of valuing the benefit of increasing life expectancy through the mitigation of consequences, or reduction in the occurrence rate of a hazard. Similar to the earlier work, the paper finds that the unilateral installation of sprinkler systems in single family homes mostly results in a net-disbenefit to society (depending upon jurisdiction). Widespread adoption of sprinklers is generally only found to be cost-beneficial where the installation and maintenance costs can be split across a number of properties per installation, e.g. apartment buildings. This conclusion is reached through the adoption of a novel and objective judgement scalar that is easy to implement and interpret.

Freedom from Development

Abstract This paper proposes that there are three essential elements or phases of development: (i) systemic capacity; (ii) individual capability, and (iii) social citizenship. Significantly, the role of government within each element of development is decidedly different. Systemic capacity refers to the development of the economic means, or wealth creation, needed to provide society with services and public goods. Capability building refers to providing individuals with the basic conditions required to live a long and fulfilling life, such as health and education. Social citizenship recognizes that values held by individuals and groups will often conflict, and there is rarely a singular social end that can determine life in a free society. Fostering citizenship reflects the importance of belonging, and the obligations, responsibilities, and restraint that individuals owe to others, society, and the environment. This third element is a notable departure from many traditional approaches to development, which tend to concentrate on development as largely a process of feeding individual needs. The proposed approach is labelled “freedom from development,” for it is premised on the recognition that while society often benefits from the pursuit of traditional development, it does not do so exclusively nor without qualification. So while there are many instances in which development is a desirable social end, as when people derive greater capabilities from economic growth, there are also situations when the end of development must be displaced in favour of other social priorities. For example, there are times when markets yield freedom, and times when the freedom people crave will be found in rejecting the market altogether. Freedom from development suggests that values represented under the third element of citizenship will often have come at the expense of those of the first two elements, meaning that development in a traditional manner is superseded in a given context. In order to determine when freedom from development is socially desirable, it is suggested that a form of cost-benefit analysis is implicitly conducted, comparing the economic and individual gains available under the first two elements with the potential social gains from belonging under the third element of citizenship.

Dementia and Imagination: A Social Return on Investment Analysis Framework for Art Activities for People Living With Dementia.

Arts activities may benefit people living with dementia. Social return on investment (SROI) analysis, a form of cost-benefit analysis, has the potential to capture the value of arts interventions, but few rigorous SROI analyses exist. This article presents a framework for an SROI analysis. One hundred twenty-five people with mild to severe dementia and 146 caregivers were recruited to the Dementia and Imagination study across residential care homes, a hospital and community venues in England and Wales for a 12-week visual arts program. Quantitative and qualitative data on quality of life, support, and program perceptions were obtained through interviews. SROI was undertaken to explore the wider social value of the arts activities. An input of £189,498 ($279,320/€257,338) to deliver the groups created a social value of £980,717 ($1,445,577/€1,331,814). This equates to a base case scenario of £/$/€5.18 of social value generated for every £/$/€1 invested. Sensitivity analysis produced a range from £/$/€3.20 to £/$/€6.62 per £/$/€1, depending on assumptions about benefit materialization; financial value of participants' time; and length of sustained benefit. To our knowledge, this is the first study applying SROI to an arts intervention for people with dementia. Arts-based activities appear to provide a positive SROI under a range of assumptions. Decision makers are increasingly seeking wider forms of economic evidence surrounding the costs and benefits of activities. This analysis is useful for service providers at all levels, from local government to care homes.

Sludge and Ordeals

In 2015, the United States government imposed 9.78 billion hours of paperwork burdens on the American people. Many of these hours are best categorized as “sludge,” reducing access to important licenses, programs, and benefits. Because of the sheer costs of sludge, rational people are effectively denied life-changing goods and services; the problem is compounded by the existence of behavioral biases, including inertia, present bias, and unrealistic optimism. In principle, a serious deregulatory effort should be undertaken to reduce sludge, through automatic enrollment, greatly simplified forms, and reminders. At the same time, sludge can promote legitimate goals. First, it can protect program integrity, which means that policymakers might have to make difficult tradeoffs between (1) granting benefits to people who are not entitled to them and (2) denying benefits to people who are entitled to them. Second, it can overcome impulsivity, recklessness, and self-control problems. Third, it can prevent intrusions on privacy. Fourth, it can serve as a rationing device, ensuring that benefits go to people who most need them. In most cases, these defenses of sludge turn out to be more attractive in principle than in practice. For sludge, a form of cost-benefit analysis is essential, and it will often argue in favor of a neglected form of deregulation: sludge reduction. For both public and private institutions,“Sludge Audits” should become routine. Various suggestions are offered for new action by the Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs, which oversees the Paperwork Reduction Act; for courts; and for Congress.

Evaluation of the justifiable investment in residential sprinkler system installations using the J-value methodology

It is common for agencies around the world to conduct some form of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) when proposing an investment in a safety measure. Since resources are limited, expenditure on one particular safety measure effectively means that there are not the resources available for other measures. Due to finite financial resources, an investment in a safety scheme will require a trade-off elsewhere. As such, the objective of a CBA is to assess whether the proposed measure provides a net benefit to society or whether resources would be better directed elsewhere.Fire safety measures, such as sprinkler systems, are one means to mitigate the risk posed by fire in buildings. Sprinkler systems have a long record of property and life protection but there is a cost associated with their installation and ongoing maintenance. For many years various agencies have examined whether sprinkler systems should be mandated in some or all buildings within their jurisdiction, and as a result have conducted different forms of CBA. However, there are a number of challenges when carrying out such assessments particularly when it comes to placing an economic value on human life.This paper revisits three previous CBA available in the literature for the installation of residential (domestic) sprinkler systems in single family dwellings. The paper applies recent work to extend the J-value methodology which employs the life quality index (LQI) concept as a mean of valuing the benefit of increasing life expectancy through the mitigation or reduction in the occurrence rate of a hazard. Similar to the previous studies investigated, the paper finds that the unilateral installation of sprinkler systems in single family homes does not provide a net benefit to society. This conclusion is reached through the adoption of a novel and objective judgement scalar that is easy to implement and interpret.

Lessons from Environmental Regulation.

Much of the most substantive and in-depth experience with formal cost-benefit analysis in the public policy realm has occurred in the context of federal environmental regulation in the United States. This experience has many important lessons to teach in the realm of synthetic biology. Indeed, many of the dangers and pitfalls that arise when decision-makers use formal CBA to evaluate environmental regulation seem likely to arise in the synthetic biology context as well, sometimes in particularly troubling forms. Unfortunately, while in many instances these concerns may well point toward a rejection of formal CBA for synthetic biology, the experience from environmental regulation turns out to be far less helpful in identifying alternative decision-making tools. Because the decisions that arise in the synthetic biology context have a fundamentally different structure from decisions about environmental regulation, the most useful alternatives from that context do not map easily onto this new context. It may well be generally true that in the search for decision-making tools, we should not be looking for a single silver bullet that will work in all public policy realms. Perhaps, instead, different kinds of decision-making call for different tools. This may be true even within the realm of synthetic biology. I am not entirely sure what the "right" tool is for synthetic biology applications, or even whether a "right" tool exists. But at the end of this essay, I offer a few tentative thoughts about why scenario analysis-a strategic planning tool first developed in the context of military planning following World War II-might be one alternative worth considering.

The Problem of Unquantified Benefits

Many of the objections raised against the use of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to evaluate government regulation, especially in the environmental context, center around the difficulties involved in quantifying and monetizing regulatory benefits. These difficulties implicate deep theoretical issues that have spawned a massive literature spanning many decades. But the difficulties posed by quantification also raise a straightforward empirical question that has been largely ignored: how often and to what extent does the problem of unquantified benefits actually arise in the practice of CBA, and how often is it attributable to the more prosaic problem of inadequate data? This Article presents methods and results of an empirical study aimed at this question. The study examined forty-five CBA’s prepared by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in connection with major final rules issued between 2002 and 2015. In 80% of the CBAs analyzed, EPA excluded categories of benefits that the agency itself described as either actually or potentially “important,” “significant,” or “substantial” because they were unquantifiable due to data limitations. In order to understand the implications of these findings for the debate about CBA more generally, this Article lays out an analytic framework for understanding the role that quantification plays in CBA, detailing how significant unquantified benefits constrain the kind of CBA that can be performed, precluding more formal varieties. These results suggest that in developing environmental rules, agencies are rarely ever able to legitimately conduct formal CBA of the sort called for in the relevant executive orders and guidance documents, and that even the informal varieties of CBA they can conduct will produce only limited conclusions at best. This suggests that the connection between CBA and its normative foundations in efficiency or welfare is even more tenuous than most of its defenders have assumed, and bolsters the case for alternative tools, like feasibility and health-based

Use of a Silver Nylon Dressing Following Total Hip and Knee Arthroplasty Decreases the Postoperative Infection Rate.

Introduction:Prosthetic joint infection (PJI) is a potentially catastrophic complication of total joint replacement. Our purpose was to determine whether the use of a silver dressing reduces the incidence of superficial and deep PJI following primary total hip replacement and total knee replacement.Methods:A case-control study of primary total hip replacement and total knee replacement was performed to compare the incidence of superficial and deep PJI in patients who received a silver nylon dressing with patients who received a standard dressing.Results:The incidence of infection was significantly lower in the study group compared with the control group. There were no deep PJIs in the silver dressing group. Twelve patients (2.3%) in the control group developed PJI.Discussion:The use of a silver dressing significantly reduced the incidence of superficial and deep PJI following total joint replacement (P = 0.010). Given the financial impact of PJI, the application of silver dressings may result in considerable cost savings, and a formal cost-benefit analysis could be investigated.

Formality and Informality in Cost-Benefit Analysis

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) is usually treated as a monolith. In fact, the term can refer to a broad variety of decisionmaking practices, ranging from a qualitative comparison of pros and cons to a highly formalized and technical method grounded in economic theory that monetizes both costs and benefits, discounts to present net value, and locates the point at which the marginal benefits curve crosses the marginal costs curve. This article develops a typology that helps to conceptualize the multiple varieties of CBA along a formality-informality spectrum. It then uses this typology to analyze the treatment of CBA by the academic community and the three branches of the federal government. In academic and policy circles, the formal end of this spectrum generates far more controversy than the informal end. Additionally, the law (federal environmental statutes and case law) seems to favor informal over formal varieties of CBA. Nonetheless, the executive branch appears to be moving toward the formal end of the spectrum. Executive Orders and guidance documents direct agencies to conduct a highly formal mode of CBA. And anecdotal evidence suggests that agencies often go out of their way to give their CBAs the trappings of formality, sometimes in ways that lead to irrational results. I argue that 1) failing to distinguish between formal and informal CBA, and the many varieties in between, has led to muddled thinking and to misuses of CBA; and 2) the trend toward formality in the executive branch is out of step with Congress and the courts and may be counterproductive, where, for example, it leads to what I call “false formality”—a corruption of CBA that can occur when agencies fail to clearly and consistently define where on the formality-informality spectrum a particular CBA falls.

Economic Evaluation of Investment for Oceanographic Research by using Cost Benefit Analysis (A Case study of Iranian National Institute for Oceanography)

This article presents an evaluation of Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) from oceanographic research in IranianNational Institute for Oceanography (INIO) as a case study over a 10-year period from 2002 to 2012. From three formsof CBA, we have calculated Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C ratio) for three categories of benefits depending on how the level ofconfidence is. Annual adjusted benefit is based on value added by cost saving or avoided cost method. Adjusted costs arethe public funds which have been indicated to INIO each year. For those benefits that have direct economic effect, thelevel of confidence is high and for indirect benefits that need more assumption to apply or more investment, confidencelevel is medium and low. The results show that B/C ratio for oceanography research in Iran ranging from a low of 0.14to a high of 4.77 depends on different scenario for benefits. So if a tangible monetary benefit is our case, the B/C ratioshows that there is no economic efficiency and more investment is needed to make oceanographic studies applicable andeconomical.

Assessing Costs and Benefits of Measures to Achieve Good Environmental Status in European Regional Seas: Challenges, Opportunities, and Lessons Learnt

The EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) requires Member States to assess the costs and benefits of Programmes of Measures (PoMs) put in place to ensure that European marine waters achieve Good Environmental Status by 2020. An interdisciplinary approach is needed to carry out such an assessment whereby economic analysis is used to evaluate the outputs from ecological analysis that determines the expected effects of such management measures. This paper applies and tests an existing six-step approach to assess costs and benefits of management measures with potential to support the overall goal of the MSFD and discusses a range of ecological and economic analytical tools applicable to this task. Environmental cost-benefit analyses are considered for selected PoMs in three European case studies: Baltic Sea (Finland), East Coast Marine Plan area (UK) and the Bay of Biscay (Spain). These contrasting case studies are used to investigate the application of environmental cost-benefit analysis including the challenges, opportunities and lessons learnt from using this approach. This paper demonstrates that there are opportunities in applying the six-step environmental cost-benefit analysis framework presented to assess the impact of PoMs. However, given demonstrated limitations of knowledge and data availability, application of other economic techniques should also be considered (although not applied here) to complement the more formal environmental cost-benefit analysis approach.

Estimation of travel time variability for cars, buses, metro and door-to-door public transport trips in Santiago, Chile

The analysis of travel time variability (TTV) is attracting attention among policy makers due to the increasing awareness that users assign a high value to level-of-service attributes. In this paper, the TTV of cars and public transport trips is analysed. We estimate the effect of each trip stage on the TTV for complete door-to-door public transport trips, including access, waiting, transfer and in-vehicle time. We employ data from Santiago, Chile, in which surveyors performed predetermined trips and recorded each stage on several days between 2007 and 2011, which were complemented by recorded bus GPS data. We found that (i) bus waiting and in-vehicle times are highly significant in explaining total (door-to-door) TTV relative to metro (subway) travel times, whereas walking time is not significant; (ii) metro travel time is generally more stable but may be more skewed compared with the travel time of buses on a segregated right-of-way; and (iii) buses that travel in mixed traffic have not only a larger mean travel time but also a larger variability than buses that travel in bus lanes and segregated busways. Formal cost-benefit analysis should consider the effect of (total or partial) segregation of public transport operation on reducing travel time variability.