Colombian Forest Research Articles

EPIZOOCHORY IN DRY FOREST IGUANAS: AN OVERLOOKED SEED DISPERSAL MECHANISM?

The role of animals as seed dispersal vectors is widely acknowledged, including dispersal by reptiles (saurochory). Most reports of saurochory have been via endozoochory, through feces deposition. We present the first evidence of epizoochory in Iguanas from a dry forest in Colombia via seeds attached to the snout. Our results show that seeds of a cactus Melocactus curvispinus ingested by iguana suffers from their passage through the digestive tract while seeds transported while attached to the snout germinate faster and in higher numbers. Our data suggest that we may have overlooked an alternative means of seed dispersal by lizards that does not comprise a passage through their digestive tract, and that deserves further attention for the understanding of dry forest ecology.

Estimation of Seed Shadows Generated by Andean Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha lugens)

Seed dispersal is known to play an important role in the ecology and evolution of plant communities, and there is ample evidence that seed dispersal by primates influences plant population dynamics in tropical forests directly. We used nonparametric statistical methods to estimate the dispersal kernels, i.e., the probability that a seed is moved a particular distance, generated by woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha lugens) at a sub-Andean forest in Colombia and test the hypothesis that the time of feeding influences dispersal distances. We collected data on monkey ranging patterns with the aid of global positioning system (GPS) units and obtained information on gut retention times from behavioral follows to build a model based on the kernel density estimator. Woolly monkeys drop most seeds hundreds of meters from parent trees and only a small proportion of seeds within close proximity. The time of seed ingestion had a significant effect on dispersal kernels, with seeds from fruits consumed early in the day having a greater chance of landing farther away from the tree than seeds swallowed in the late afternoon. The results of this study build on previous findings suggesting that woolly monkeys have a positive effect on the fitness of plants, which may be exacerbated in mountain forests where the diversity of large frugivores is low.

Radical-scavenging capacity and phenolic inventory of Colombian forest and shrub plants

Phenolic compounds are metabolites found in majority of plants, but their content varies among species as well as depending on ecophysiological conditions. Its role in human health and disease is a recurrent research topic. As part of our study on reasonable sources of phenolics, the present work shows the results of the study within inventory purposes of a group of 25 forest and shrub plants from Fabaceae, Lauraceae, Burseraceae Bignonaceae, Piperaceae and Lauraceae families, by determining the total content of phenols and flavonoids (TPC and TFC, respectively) of extracts obtained from the aerial part, stems, bark, flowers and wood. TPC values were found to be in 30 – 500 mg GAE/g DE range, and TFC in 3 – 60 mg QE/g DE range. The highest TPC and TFC values were exhibited by the Fabaceae-derived extracts. The antioxidant capacity was evaluated by DDPH and FRAP. The IC50 values for DPPH were found to be in 5 – 100 µg/mL range, and FRAP in 10 – 300µM/g ES range, being the extracts exhibited higher antioxidant capacity to those of the species belonging to the Fabaceae and Burseraceae families, which agrees with the TFC and TPC values. Principal component analysis also correlated TPC values and antioxidant capacity. The present work is a product derived by the Project IMP-CIAS-1567 financed by Vicerrectoría de Investigaciones at UMNG – Validity 2014.

Vertical stratification of epiphytic bryophytes found on Quercus humboldtii (Fagaceae) from boyacá, Colombia

Oak forest represents an ecologically important plant formation in Colombia, partly due to the large amount of epiphyte flora that harbors, especially non-vascular plants which have been poorly studied in Colombia. One of the biggest oak forests in the country is the one found in the Parque Natural Municipal "Robledales de Tipacoque" (PNMRT), in Boyacá, municipality of Tipacoque. The epiphyte bryoflora was evaluated in Q. humboldtii, using canopy climbing techniques and dividing the trees (25 individuals sampled) each into five layers (base, trunk, inner canopy, middle and outer canopy). A total of 365 samples were collected: 29% liveworts and 71% mosses. Hepatics represented 10 families, 16 genera and 26 species; mosses 11 families, 26 genera and 49 species. Considering the tree layers, the most diverse one was the base with 51 species, followed by the trunk with 43; in the canopy, the inner canopy was found the most diverse with 28 species, and was followed by the middle canopy with 18, and the outer canopy with 15. A species similarity index shows that the trunk and the middle canopy were the most closely related (0.42) in terms of species composition. The results showed that non-vascular plants were mostly found in lower layers (base and trunk), where the diversity was greater, richer (species number), and this might be caused by the microclimatic conditions in these places, such as higher humidity, lower light intensity and shade. Thus, some species are considered shade epiphytes (ombrophiles) because they are unique to these areas, like Bazzania gracilis and Taxilejeunea pterigonia, among others. Likewise, Jungermannia sp. is considered a sun epiphyte (heliophilous) because it is found only in the outer canopy. We concluded that Q. humboldtii could be considered as a potential host for the conservation of non-vascular epiphytes in Colombian forests.

Seed and Establishment Limitation: Effects on Plant Diversity in an Amazonian Rain Forest

AbstractRecruitment limitation (seed limitation and establishment limitation) has been proposed to contribute to the maintenance of high diversity of plants in tropical forests. This hypothesis suggests that diversity is maintained by slowing down competitive exclusion. In this study we: (1) quantified the relative importance of seed limitation and establishment limitation on recruitment for 4–7 species, testing the impact of seed predators and competition; (2) evaluated the effect of recruitment limitation on the diversity of seedling communities: if recruitment limitation is a diversity‐promoting mechanism, then removing the limitation should have a negative effect on diversity. To evaluate the magnitude and effects of recruitment limitation we used data from 400 seed traps, we executed seed addition experiments with and without vertebrate exclusion, and we conducted seedling transplant experiments during 2 yr in an Amazonian rain forest in Colombia. On the basis of seed traps, we found that seed limitation was strong; however, seed addition experiments showed that establishment limitation is more important than seed limitation for recruitment in all species considered. The addition/transplant experiments did not affect diversity of the surrounding seedlings, lending no support to the theory that recruitment limitation affects diversity. Establishment limitation was stronger at the seed–seedling transition than in older seedling transitions, as shown by high survival in the seedling transplants experiment. We found that seed dispersal increases regenerating plant diversity, and that predation is an important factor affecting seed establishment. We highlight the role of animals in these processes and therefore in the maintenance of diversity in tropical rain forests.

Alterations in litter decomposition patterns in tropical montane forests of Colombia: a comparison of oak forests and coniferous plantations

Understanding the alterations in litter decay patterns that follow changes in land use in tropical montane forests is essential for comprehending carbon, energy, and nutrient dynamics in this understudied ecosystem. The main objective of this study was to determine the changes in organic matter, carbon return, and nutrient cycling when oak forests are replaced by coniferous plantations in tropical montane forests. Five litter decay models (single, double, and triple pool exponential, gamma pk, log-uniform pk) were used to fit litter mass loss data over time. Although all models properly fitted the data, the triple pool exponential model was chosen because all parameters (coefficient of determination (R2), mean square of error (MSE), and Akaike information criterion (AIC)) were statistically the most adequate. Results indicated that litter of coniferous species decomposes more slowly than oak litter material, thus slowing the nutrient cycling. In this study, lignin content, C:N ratio, and N:P ratio were poor predictors of litter decomposition.

Colonization of forest clearings and tree-fall gaps in lowland rain forests of Colombia by hemiepiphytic aroids: experimental and transect studies

Abstract:The contribution of vegetative recruitment by non-tree species to the regeneration of tropical forests in man-made clearings or tree-fall gaps tends to be ignored. In a series of field studies near Amacayacu, Colombian Amazonia, we tested if hemiepiphytic aroids quickly colonize such open habitats through seed dispersal, sprouting plant fragments, or lateral invasion of flagellar aroids from the closed forest nearby. A seed germination experiment applying two soil substrates and three shade levels showed that abundant light reduced the germination success of three Philodendron species. A total of 400 cuttings from five Philodendron species were placed in forest clearings and almost 12% of these sprouted within 14 wk. Monitoring more than 2000 aroid plants over 14 mo in different habitats showed that recruitment was low (0.3 plants per 10 m2) compared with initial densities (3.1 plants per 10 m2). Flagellar aroids grew about 2.5 times faster than non-flagellar aroids. In forest edges they reached a mean apical growth of 98 cm in 14 mo. However, non-flagellar aroids were five to six times more abundant than flagellar individuals everywhere. It was concluded that hemiepiphytic aroids colonize open habitats mostly through a post-disturbance survival of plants or plant fragments.

Elimination of bisphenol a and triclosan using the enzymatic system of autochthonous colombian forest fungi.

Bisphenol A (BPA) and triclosan (TCS) are known or suspected potential endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) which may pose a risk to human health and have an environmental impact. Enzyme preparations containing mainly laccases, obtained from Ganoderma stipitatum and Lentinus swartzii, two autochthonous Colombian forest white rot fungi (WRF), previously identified as high enzyme producers, were used to remove BPA and TCS from aqueous solutions. A Box-Behnken factorial design showed that pH, temperature, and duration of treatment were significant model terms for the elimination of BPA and TCS. Our results demonstrated that these EDCs were extensively removed from 5 mg L−1 solutions after a contact time of 6 hours. Ninety-four percent of TCS and 97.8% of BPA were removed with the enzyme solution from G. stipitatum; 83.2% of TCS and 88.2% of BPA were removed with the L. swartzii enzyme solution. After a 6-hour treatment with enzymes from G. stipitatum and L. swartzii, up to 90% of the estrogenic activity of BPA was lost, as shown by the yeast estrogen screen assay. 2,2-Azino-bis-(3-ethylthiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) was used as a mediator (laccase/mediator system) and significantly improved the laccase catalyzed elimination of BPA and TCS. The elimination of BPA in the absence of a mediator resulted in production of oligomers of molecular weights of 454, 680, and 906 amu as determined by mass spectra analysis. The elimination of TCS in the same conditions produced dimers, trimers, and tetramers of molecular weights of 574, 859, and 1146 amu. Ecotoxicological studies using Daphnia pulex to determine lethal concentration (LC50) showed an important reduction of the toxicity of BPA and TCS solutions after enzymatic treatments. Use of laccases emerges thus as a key alternative in the development of innovative wastewater treatment technologies. Moreover, the exploitation of local biodiversity appears as a potentially promising approach for identifying new efficient strains for biotechnological applications.

The Social Behavior of Brown Spider Monkeys (Ateles hybridus) in a Fragmented Forest in Colombia

Forest fragmentation and habitat loss are two of the main drivers of wildlife population declines. Animals exposed to habitat disturbances must develop behavioral strategies to adapt to novel, rapidly fluctuating socioecological challenges. Understanding the behavioral flexibility of endangered primates as a response to ecological challenges, e.g., anthropogenic habitat disturbance, is a key element in the design of successful conservation initiatives for remaining populations. We studied the social behavior of a group of 11 adult and subadult brown spider monkeys (Ateles hybridus) living in a recently isolated and densely populated forest fragment in the Magdalena River Valley, Colombia, and compared their behavior to that of other wild spider monkey populations. From June 2009 to July 2010 we assessed diet, activity budgets, and the rates of affiliative and agonistic interactions initiated and received by adult male and female spider monkeys. The diet of our focal group was quite different from that in most previous studies of Ateles: leaves accounted for ca. 40 % of their diet, and fruits represented barely half of their diet, suggesting that this population has had to adjust its feeding strategies to the local ecological challenges. We found no sex differences in the time males and females spent resting, moving, and socializing, but females tended to invest more time in feeding than males did. Male-to-female aggression was the most common agonistic interaction, and same-sex aggressions were almost absent. We found no significant differences in rates of grooming or embracing between the different types of dyads. The resemblance of our results to those of similar studies in less disturbed habitats suggests that spider monkeys might adapt to certain levels of ecological and social disturbance, at least initially, and are a starting point to understand better the initial effects of fragmentation on the behavioral repertoire of these primates.

Dung Beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeinae) Attracted toLagothrix lagotricha(Humboldt) andAlouatta seniculus(Linnaeus) (Primates: Atelidae) Dung in a Colombian Amazon Forest

Dung beetles are among the most important insects in the Neotropics. Some species use a wide range of food sources, whereas other species are highly specialized. This study compares the use of two-primate excrement by an assemblage of dung beetles in a tropical forest in Colombia. Dung ofLagothrix lagotrichaandAlouatta seniculuswas used to attract beetles. A total of 32 species (47.7% of the species recorded for the area) were found on the two types of excrement studied, demonstrating that primate excrement is an important resource. The niche overlap between both feces is 27.03%, which indicates a high degree of resource specialization. Although these two primate species are found in the same areas, their diets vary greatly to permit a high degree of differentiation in beetle species. A study that includes dung of others primates would create a more complete panorama of resource overlap in the assemblage.

Meeting between kingdoms: discovery of a close association between Diplopoda and Bryophyta in a transitional Andean-Pacific forest in Colombia

In a Nature Reserve called Reserva Natural Río Nambí (Nariño, Colombia), a platyrhacid millipede population of Psammodesmus bryophorus Hoffman, Martínez & Flórez, 2011 was discovered with 10 epizoic bryophyte species from five families: Fissidentaceae, Lejeuneaceae, Metzgeriaceae, Leucomiaceae and Pilotrichaceae. The inspected sample included 22 P. bryophorus individuals of which 15 were carrying mosaics of different bryophyte species on their dorsa, principally Lepidopilum scabrisetum, Lejeunea sp. 1 and Fissidens weirii. This finding constitutes the first record of epizoic plants on Diplopoda.

How many species of woolly monkeys inhabit Colombian forests?

There is a controversy regarding how many species the genus Lagothrix contains, since the Lagothrix lagothricha subspecies have been recently proposed to be actual species. Clarification of species status is of particular importance in the case of L. l. lugens, because it is the most endangered and its distribution is restricted to the Colombian Andes, a highly deforested region. Using cytogenetic and molecular markers, we obtained evidence indicating that the subspecies status is appropriate for the two taxa occurring in this country. We also report high levels of intraspecific variability in the karyotype. We find evidence for a late Pleistocene separation of the subspecies, and we propose it is the limited area of contact between the taxa that allowed for them to partially differentiate.

Restoration of Plant–Pollinator Interactions: Pollination Neighborhood and Asymmetric Pollen Flow Between Restored Habitats in a Beetle‐Pollinated Aroid

Two processes globally threatening natural ecosystems are changes in land use and deforestation. Two methods used to restore threatened ecosystems are: (1) unassisted forest regeneration, which promotes the establishment of plants and fauna arriving from surrounding habitats and (2) assisted restoration, which involves the reconstruction of forests by planting native or exotic trees. Functional attributes, such as plant–pollinator interactions, are essential for ecosystem recovery. Unfortunately, information regarding the effect of restoration on pollination systems is limited. Forty years ago, a tropical cloud forest in Colombia was restored through unassisted forest regeneration, as well as by establishing monospecific plantations of the exotic Chinese ash Fraxinus chinensis. The understories of both restoration strategies were colonized by the beetle‐pollinated aroid Xanthosoma daguense. Using isolation‐by‐distance and multi‐strata mark‐recapture models, I estimated in each restoration strategy two fundamental pollination processes: (1) the magnitude of X. daguense pollination neighborhood and (2) the directionality of pollen flow among plants colonizing both restoration strategies. In addition, I recorded pollinator visits and fruit production for X. daguense in each restored habitats. The pollination neighborhood of X. daguense in the ash plantation is two times larger than its pollination neighborhood in natural regeneration. Inflorescences in the ash plantation donated 10 times more pollen to inflorescences in natural regeneration. Plants in natural regeneration produced two times more infructescences and more fruits than plants in ash plantation. Results show that the selection of different restoration strategies can alter two major components of plant–pollinator interactions in plants colonizing restored habitats, pollination neighborhoods, and pollen flow within the population.

Secondary seed dispersal by dung beetles in a Colombian rain forest: effects of dung type and defecation pattern on seed fate

Abstract:In rain forests the fate of seeds defecated by mammals is often affected by dung beetles, but these effects can vary with mammal species. In a Colombian forest, differences in Scarabaeinae assemblages attracted to spider monkey (Ateles hybridus) and howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) defecations were assessed. In total, 791 beetles of 35 species were captured. Mean number of individuals was similar for both dung types; mean number of species was higher forAlouattatraps. The effects of dung type (Alouattavs.Ateles) and defecation pattern (clumped vs. scattered) on the fate of 220Rollinia edulis(Annonaceae) seeds were determined. Burial by beetles occurred for 61% of the seeds (mean depth 2.6 cm). Seeds inAlouattadung and in clumped defecations had higher burial rates. Horizontal movement (mean 11 cm) occurred for 80% of the seeds; no significant effects of experimental factors were detected. Survival was higher for buried vs. surface seeds. In a separate experiment, no differences were detected between dung types in the proportion of seeds buried by beetles. Changes in dung texture might have been responsible for the contrasting results. When assessing the effectiveness of an endozoochorous plant–mammal interaction, secondary dispersal by dung beetles should be addressed too.

Amphibia, Anura, Centrolenidae, Espadarana callistomma (Guayasamin and Trueb, 2007): first country records from Colombia

The glassfrogs diversity in the Chocoan tropical rain forest in Colombia is far from being thoroughly documented. We report here, the first record of Espadarana callistomma for the lowlands of Colombia. Further work in this region can yield results of interest to clarify the phylogenetic relationships of this group.

Synanthropy and ecological aspects of Muscidae (Diptera) in a tropical dry forest ecosystem in Colombia

The synanthropic index and other ecological aspects of the Muscidae family were evaluated through simultaneous monthly sampling in three different environments (urban, rural and forest) using van Someren-Rydon traps baited with human faeces, chicken viscera and decomposing fish and onion. Four traps were set up in each environment (one per bait item) for 48 hours per month, with samples taken every 12 hours. A total of 5726 specimens were collected, belonging to 19 species and 13 genera. Brontaea normata (+99,9), Brontaea quadristigma (+96,9), Synthesiomyia nudiseta (+96,5), Ophyra aenescens (+96,2), Musca domestica (+95,7) and Atherigona orientalis (+93,8) had the highest synanthropic indices, showing a marked preference for human environments. The most abundant species were B. normata (24,31%), Biopyrellia bipuncta (20,60%) and Pseudoptilolepis nigripoda (15,82%), the latter two showed a preference for uninhabited areas. A total of 11 new records for Colombia were found: Ophyra aenescens, Cyrtoneuropsis pararescita, Morellia basalis, Neomuscina dorsipuncta, Biopyrellia bipuncta, Pseudoptilolepis nigripoda, Neomuscina instabilis, Neomuscina currani, Polietina orbitalis, Neomuscina pictipennis and Cyrtoneuropsis maculipennis. Except for the first four species, the remainder presented negative synantrophy indexes (from minor to major), which would allow to use them as ecological indicators of the disturbance degree of dry forests in Colombia.

Recuperación estructural en bosques sucesionales andinos de Porce (Antioquia, Colombia)

Places subjected to natural or human disturbance can recover forest through an ecological process called secondary succession. Tropical succession is affected by factors such as disturbances, distance from original forest, surface configuration and local climate. These factors determine the composition of species and the time trend of the succession itself. We studied succession in soils used for cattle ranching over various decades in the Porce Region of Colombia (Andean Colombian forests). A set of twenty five permanent plots was measured, including nine plots (20 x 50 m) in primary forests and sixteen (20 x 25 m) in secondary forests. All trees with diameter > or =1.0 cm were measured. We analyzed stem density, basal area, above-ground biomass and species richness, in a successional process of ca. 43 years, and in primary forests. The secondary forests' age was estimated in previous studies, using radiocarbon dating, aerial photographs and a high-resolution satellite image analysis (7 to >43 years). In total, 1,143 and 1,766 stems were measured in primary and secondary forests, respectively. Basal area (5.7 to 85.4 m2 ha(-1)), above-ground biomass (19.1 to 1,011.5 t ha(-1)) and species richness (4 to 69) directly increased with site age, while steam density decreased (3,180 to 590). Diametric distributions were "J-inverted" for primary forests and even-aged size-class structures for secondary forests. Three species of palms were abundant and exclusive in old secondary forests and primary forests: Oenocarpus mapora, Euterpe precatoria and Oenocarpus bataua. These palms happened in cohorts after forest disturbances. Secondary forest structure was 40% in more than 43 years of forest succession and indicate that many factors are interacting and affecting the forests succession in the area (e.g. agriculture, cattle ranching, mining, etc.).

Preliminary bird inventory in two forest fragments of the Colombian Eastern andean slope

The alteration in the Colombian forests is constantly increasing in areas where no registers of its biodiversity exist. When carrying out a preliminary ornithological inventory in two forest fragments in the south of the eastern Colombian Andes Mountains on the Florencia-Suaza road, on the limit of the Departments of Huila and Caqueta, the negative environmental impact made by mankind was evident. The avifauna of this study was registered by direct observation and net captures. 229 individuals, grouped into 73 species were registered; the families Thraupidae, Trochilidae and Tyrannidae were the most diverse ones. The ecological analysis, through the use of habitat and niche, showed that the majority of species were found in the primary forest, and regarding the kind of diet, the most abundant ones were the insectivores and frugivores of sot forest. The altitudinal distribution range of four species was increased: Heliodoxa schreibersii, Tangara xanthogastra, Xiphorhynchus erythropygius and Myiobius barbatus. The state of conservation of forests is good, but its constant fragmentation can cause the restriction and local migration of the fauna that depends on this ecosystem. The information presented here is the first inventory of avifauna done for this zone.

Lack of Interspecific Plant Competition With a Dominant Grass in the Understory of a Lowland Forest in Colombia

ABSTRACTI analyzed a natural experiment of competition involving a dominant herb in Tinigua Park, Colombia. Pharus virescens is a dominant monocarpic grass that synchronously produces seeds once every 5 yr, after which all individuals die. I found no difference in species richness, density, or diversity comparing plots with and without the grass in 381 quadrats (4 m2) and there was no negative relationship between the abundance of the grass and that of other plants.

Revision of the American Pupisoma species (Gastropoda: Pupilloidea)

The American species of Pupisoma Stoliczka (Gastropoda: Pupilloidea) are revised. Five species are recognized. Pupisoma puella Hylton Scott has been synonymized with P. dioscoricola (C. B. Adams). This species occurs from southern USA through the Caribbean and Central America to the Galapagos Islands and to southern Brazil and northern Argentina. Pupisoma galapagorum Pilsbry, P. bailyi Pilsbry, and P. latens Hylton Scott have been synonymized with P. comicolense H. B. Baker. This species is distributed from Mexico to the Galapagos Islands, southern Brazil, and northern Argentina. Pupisoma costulata sp. n. from Andean forests in Colombia is described as new. The range of P. macneilli (Clapp) extends from southern USA through the Caribbean and Central America to southern Brazil and northern Argentina. A neotype has been designated for P. mediamericanum Pilsbry. Pupisoma michoacanense Pilsbry is a synonym of this species. This species occurs from Mexico to Colombia and on Jamaica.