Kenya Forest Research Articles

Community perceptions on wildfires in Mount Kenya forest: implications for fire preparedness and community wildfire management

BackgroundNatural ecosystems provide beneficial goods and services to adjacent communities. However, these benefits also come with societal risks, among them wildfires. Kenyan ecosystems have faced increased wildfire risk due to human activities and a warming earth that causes dangerous fire weather conditions. Mount Kenya is one such ecosystem that experiences annual fires; however, there is limited information on the level of knowledge or preparedness of the local community towards wildfires and fire management across the entire ecosystem. Here, we used questionnaires and interviews to randomly and purposively survey 55 respondents across 11 villages that surround Mt Kenya forest, majority of whom were Community Forest Association (CFA) members. We investigated the perceived extent to which the communities contribute to wildfires; their opinions on some aspects of fire management; and what individual and collective actions are required to improve fire preparedness.ResultsThe most perceived causes of wildfires were honey harvesting (56%) and poaching (40%). A minority of the respondents (35%) were aware of the belief that setting forests on fire brings about rainfall, with 56% of that group reporting that the belief contributed to wildfire ignitions by a large extent. This scientifically inconclusive belief was not specific to certain tribes around Mt Kenya, as previously expected. The community strongly rejected the use of prescribed burning in fire management. They were against clearing of forest or farm debris to reduce fuel hazards, and preferred converting debris into compost.ConclusionsTo improve fire preparedness, firefighting training, resourcing, firebreak creation, and sharing of wildfire warnings with the local community need to be enhanced. Despite limited community involvement in fire-management decisions, we recommend a greater involvement of the local community in forest and/or fire management to promote ownership and sustainability.

Income Generating Initiatives and Sustainability of Projects in Kenya

This study explored the extent to which income generating empowerment initiatives influence sustainability of projects. Income generating initiatives are aimed at creating wealth and improving livelihoods. Such initiatives can be found in all sectors of the economy. This study took place in Voi sub-county, Kenya. It targeted eight projects implemented between 2006 and 2015. Quantitative data was collected from 4,138 household heads, while qualitative data was collected from 14 staff from two NGOs and four (4) Staff from Kenya Forest Service (KFS). Decision to collect quantitative data from 365 respondents resulted from the use of the Yamane formula. Six respondents purposively selected provided qualitative data. Other sampling techniques used were systematic and cluster sampling. The F-ratio obtained was F (1,351) = 161.955; p < 0.05. The null hypothesis was rejected. The conclusion of the study was that income-generating initiatives positively support sustainability of projects.

Contribution of non-timber forest products to the livelihoods of households residing adjacent to Loita Forest, Kenya

The use and commercialization of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for livelihood development and their adverse impact on forest ecosystems have received significant academic attention recently. To conserve forests and ensure continued livelihood support, it is essential to harvest NTFPs in a sustainable manner. Thus, efforts to conserve such resources must be preceded by understanding how communities interact with them. This study aimed to clarify the relationship between participation in forest conservation and income earned from forests. The primary data were collected via a socio-economic survey of 151 households residing adjacent to Loita Forest in Kenya. The population in the study area extracts NTFPs, such as firewood, natural medicine, building poles, and honey. There is a positive relationship between participation in forest conservation efforts and income earned from the sale of NTFPs. Thus, the Loita Community Forest is a crucial source of essential NTFPs for adjacent households’ subsistence. Therefore, these households should be encouraged to participate more in forest conservation efforts. Such endeavors would facilitate livelihood development of local communities and sustainable management of forests in Kenya.

Effects of climate change on the availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the Kavonge and Museve hilltop forests in Kenya

The study evaluated the effects of climate change on the availability of NTFPS in Kavonge and Museve hilltop forests in Kitui County, Kenya. The specific study objective was to assess local community perception on rainfall and temperature patterns on NTFPs availability. A sample size of 120 respondents were selected for the study using the Yamane formula. A purposive sampling method was used to select villages within 5 kilometer radius to both hilltop forests and a systematic transect line design of 1km by 1km was used to select households for data collections. Data were collected by employing structured questionnaires, key informant interviews and focus groups discussions. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, bar charts), chi-square test and logistic regression. The result revealed that majority 83.0% of respondents strongly agreed that climatic conditions of the area has changed. The results submit that 96% of the respondents perceived an increase in temperature pattern during this recent period of 2018-2023 while, 100% perceived a decrease in rainfall pattern during this recent period of 2018-2023. The logistic regression model results revealed that, age, education, occupation and residency period significantly (p < 0.05) influenced community perception of climate change (rainfall and temperature) patterns on NTFPs availability in the study area. It is ascertained that the Kavonge and Museve forests edge communities still rely on the available NTFPs as a safety net when faced with unfavorable circumstances, such as crop failure due to climate change. However, it was reported that the available quantities of NTFP are declining due to climate change. I conclude that, available NTFPs will continue to decrease if stringent sustainable utilization and management measures are not implemented.

Snails of ‘sky islands’ above an equatorial desert: Terrestrial molluscs on four isolated mountain ranges in northern Kenya

AbstractThe mountains of northern Kenya (Ndoto, Nyiro, Kulal and Marsabit) are separated by semi‐arid plains uninhabitable for most terrestrial molluscs (snails and slugs). Nevertheless, each “sky island” supports a little‐known forest mollusc fauna. The diversity and endemism of these faunas are addressed here based on surveys and the limited records available in the literature. In total 75 forest mollusc species and subspecies were found, including six previously undescribed Streptaxidae and many first records. Most previously recorded taxa were refound. The richness of faunas is broadly comparable to that of other Kenyan forests surveyed using similar methods (Ndoto 41 taxa, Nyiro 40, Kulal 33, Marsabit 34). A large proportion of the forest taxa (24 taxa, 29%) are endemic to Kenya north of the Mathews Range. More than half of these (14 taxa, 17% of the total) are known only from a single mountain range. At Nyiro, where different forest types were compared, fewer endemic species were found in Juniper forest than in other forest types. Moving northwards along the Ndoto‐Nyiro‐Kulal chain, diversity declines while endemism increases, perhaps reflecting increasing isolation from the southern forests, but the trends are not significant when Marsabit is included. Across the four ranges, neither diversity nor endemism is clearly linked to the isolation, maximum elevation, forest cover or geological origin of each range (Kulal and Marsabit are volcanoes, while Nyiro and Ndoto are uplifted basement rock). Instead, the unique circumstances of each range create a distinctive set of isolated faunas.

Low-Cost Non-Contact Forest Inventory: A Case Study of Kieni Forest in Kenya

Forests are a vital source of food, fuel, and medicine and play a crucial role in climate change mitigation. Strategic and policy decisions on forest management and conservation require accurate and up-to-date information on available forest resources. Forest inventory data such as tree parameters, heights, and crown diameters must be collected and analysed to monitor forests effectively. Traditional manual techniques are slow and labour-intensive, requiring additional personnel, while existing non-contact methods are costly, computationally intensive, or less accurate. Kenya plans to increase its forest cover to 30% by 2032 and establish a national forest monitoring system. Building capacity in forest monitoring through innovative field data collection technologies is encouraged to match the pace of increase in forest cover. This study explored the applicability of low-cost, non-contact tree inventory based on stereoscopic photogrammetry in a recently reforested stand in Kieni Forest, Kenya. A custom-built stereo camera was used to capture images of 251 trees in the study area from which the tree heights and crown diameters were successfully extracted quickly and with high accuracy. The results imply that stereoscopic photogrammetry is an accurate and reliable method that can support the national forest monitoring system and REDD+ implementation.

HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION IN SEDIMENT AND WATER OF RIVER NYAMINDI, KIRINYAGA COUNTY, KENYA

Toxic heavy metals get into humans through absorption, inhalation and ingestion. All heavy metals are toxic to animals and plants when present in excessive amounts. The adverse effects of heavy metals in mammals may manifest in disorders such as growth retardation, decrease in longevity, changes in reproductive cycles, chronic diseases and formation of tumours. River Nyamindi flows from Mt. Kenya Forest passing through rocks, soil, agricultural land, residential areas and urban centres. Geological factors and human activities may have made heavy metals get into the river water. Since the water is used for domestic purposes and irrigation, it was necessary to determine if heavy metal concentration in river Nyamindi has reached alarming levels. Water and sediment samples were collected along river Nyamindi during wet and dry season. The samples were digested appropriately and the concentration of eight heavy metals determined using ICP-MS. The mean amount of Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Zn, As, Mn and Se in sediment were 0.0882, 41.1219, 91.7718, 10.7445, 54.3880, 2.4561, 1753.5587 and 5.7648 mg/kg respectively during wet season and 0.0590, 39.1176, 559.0917, 0.3781,76.3715, 3.0114, 1714.4195 and 6.5488 mg/kg respectively during dry season. The mean concentration of the same metals in water was 0.00005, 0.0167, 0.1943, 0.0223, below detection limit (BDL), 0.0002, 0.1379 and BDL ppm respectively during wet season and 0.0009, 0.0005, 0.0148, 0.0184, BDL, 0.00003, 0.0080 and 0.00003 ppm respectively during dry season. The mean amount of Cr, Ni and Mn in sediment were found to be above WHO and US EPA permissible limits during both seasons. The mean concentration of Cr and Mn in water were above WHO and KEBS/WASREB permissible limits during wet season. However, during dry season, all the eight heavy metal concentrations in water were below WHO, KEBS/WASREB permissible limits. Therefore, as far as the eight heavy metals are concerned, water from river Nyamindi was not be potable during rainy season but was potable during dry season. However, further investigations should be carried out to determine other water parameters to confirm it’s suitability as potable water.

A new genus and species of toad from Mount Kenya illuminates East African montane biogeography

Abstract Discoveries of new species can greatly impact our understanding of the biogeography of a region. For example, groups of amphibian lineages restricted to the Afrotemperate forests of Tanzania and Ethiopia are indicative of a shared biogeographical history of this highly discontinuous ecosystem. Curiously, many of these lineages are absent from the geographically intermediate Kenyan highlands. This phylogeographical interval is generally considered to be attributable to the younger, volcanic origins of much of the Kenyan highlands, and thus an amphibian fauna that is derived largely from recent colonization events rather than comprising older relicts. Contrasting with this view, here we report on the discovery of a single specimen of Bufonidae (true toad) from Mount Kenya. The specimen belongs to a species new to science and deserves recognition at the generic level owing to its notable molecular phylogenetic and morphological divergences from other described taxa. It is most closely related to the Tanzanian genera Churamiti and Nectophrynoides. The discovery of this new toad and its association with Afrotemperate species is significant because it links Kenya to the biogeographically more ancient Tanzanian mountains and supports the potential longevity of the Afrotemperate forests in Kenya. Broadly, it highlights that we are still adding major branches to the phylogeny of anurans.

Community Forest Associations Boundaries and Sustainable Forest Management in Loita Forest, Narok County, Kenya

The Kenya Forest Act of 2005, subsequently revised in 2016, introduced the Kenya Forest Service and its mandate to engage in Participatory Forest Management (PFM) agreements with local communities adjoining state forests. This framework necessitated the establishment of Community Forest Associations (CFAs) nationwide, including the Loita Community Forest Association. However, a prevailing concern surrounding CFAs is the delineation and redefinition of boundaries, an issue that has gained prominence due to Kenya's decentralized forest governance system and the ambiguity surrounding the management of locally-held common resources. This study centers on investigating the process of establishing boundaries for the CFAs both in forest resources and the users within Loita Forest in Narok County, Kenya. Notably, Loita forest operates under a Traditional Participatory Forest arrangement, controlled by community elders, led by the revered Oloibon, who steers the resource utilization decisions. The vast expanse of Loita forest encompasses both lush woodlands and savanna landscapes. Employing purposive sampling, the study engaged 52 respondents from nine distinct Loita sub-locations. Key informants were interviewed individually, complemented with focus group discussions conducted with the use of semi-structured questions. Participant observation further enriched data collection, consolidating insights from key informants and group discussions. Collected data was meticulously tape-recorded and subjected to summative content analysis. The inquiry delved into the practicality of existing traditional resource-use boundaries, the adequacy of governmental regulations, policies, and institutions in elevating forest governance within Kenya, and the extent to which individual indigenous rights have been upheld in managing and using communal forest resources. Key findings of this study show that the Loita Maasai still values their traditional norms and have great respect for cultural institutions. Major decisions concerning the management of Loita forest are made by the council of elders led by the Chief Laibon. The study also found that there exists no CFA in Loita forest and that the presence of government institutions in the forest is minimal. This study's outcomes contribute to a nuanced understanding of the intricate interplay between indigenous wisdom, modern frameworks, and sustainable forest management. It underscores the indispensable role of tradition in shaping boundaries, governance, and ecological equilibrium within Loita forest and offers practical directives for future forest management endeavors.

Community Knowledge and Attitudes towards the Critically Endangered Mountain Bongo in Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy

Aims: To assess local community knowledge and attitudes towards the conservation of the critically endangered Mountain bongo in Mt Kenya Wildlife Conservancy.
 Study Design: Descriptive research design was used.
 Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in the community neighboring Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy and the adjacent part of the Mt Kenya Forest during the month of March 2020.
 Methodology: The survey targeted approximately 500 households that are less than 3 kilometers from the conservancy and forest boundaries. Households were considered as sampling units and these were selected using systematic random sampling technique. The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured manner and colored photographs of the Mountain bongo and 12 other selected mammals found in the region were used to assess respondent’s basic knowledge about the animals.
 Results: The results captured 142 informants where 71.8% of the respondents could identify the mountain bongo but only 18.3% were aware of its vernacular name. Knowledge on habitat requirements, feeding habits, threats and conservation value differed significantly from what was expected (p<0.05). Based on logistic regression, the knowledge could be predicted based on gender and age and whether one had a previous interaction with the animal. We found that 57% of the respondents supported bongo conservation whereas 40.8% were undecided and this was associated with lack of knowledge about the animal. In addition 27.5% of the respondents appreciated mountain bongo because of attracting tourists, 12.0% felt that the antelope was attractive, 8.5% liked its size, 4.2% liked its products such as bushmeat, 4.2% liked its aggressiveness and 0.7% liked its interesting behaviour.
 Conclusion: Although bongos could be identified by most respondents, basic ecological knowledge of the animal is limited in the community. A pro-conservation attitude towards bongos exists in the community, but the utilitarian value attached to it and its habitat could be a threat to its conservation in the Mt Kenya. Local community support for conservation of the Mountain bongo in Mt Kenya was influenced by gender, age and knowledge of the animal and these factors should be considered when creating conservation awareness in the community.

Drivers of Community Participation in Participatory Forest Management; An Evidence of Kodera Forest in Kenya

The present thirty-one percent of overall forest cover is not enough to conserve biological diversity globally and so the need to conserve the last global forests (Powlen et al., 2021). Kenya has experienced significant degradation of forest resources in the last 40 years. In 2005, the government passed a forest legislation that allows communities adjacent to forests to co-manage forests. This paper evaluated the driving force of community involvement in participatory forest management. The paper adopted a descriptive research design targeting forest-adjacent communities. A questionnaire and interview schedule were used for data collection. A pilot study was conducted, and research tools were carefully revised to ensure the validity and reliability of the content. The paper used Taro Yamane’s sampling formula to extract 255 respondents from a total of 671 households surrounding the forest. Quantitative data were evaluated using inferential statistics. The results were presented in tables and discussed appropriately. The results showed that 45.90% of the respondents are affiliated with one of the conservation user groups, while 54.1% of respondents were not affiliated with any Kodera Forest conservation groups. Based on Pearson’s chi-square test statistic (43.449 with p-value = 0.000), it was clear that there was a significant association between education level and perception of forest user group importance. Similarly, the chi-square results suggested that there is a statistically significant association between participation in conservation activities and respondents’ monthly expenditure at the conventional level of significance (α = 0.05)

Conserving the Sacred: Socially Innovative Efforts in the Loita Enaimina Enkiyio Forest in Kenya

Indigenous Communities residing inside or next to autochthonal forests conserved them through governance frameworks that invoked traditional sacral law and reverence for their resource commons. More recently, however, the link between communities and forest conservation has been mired by dynamics of dispossession and displacement. Through a qualitative case study approach, using key informant interviews, transect walks, focus groups, and interviews, the researchers explore the conservation dynamics in Loita, in the South of Kenya, specifically looking at the sacred Enaimina Enkiyio forest. The study evaluated how the Loita community has challenged two state initiatives predicating conservation efforts and mobilised the sacred to conserve their resource commons. It combines a social-ecological approach with social innovation theory, spiritual geography, cultural studies and literature on indigenous knowledge systems, looking at, among others, sacred values attributed to places, nature–culture relationships, and value and belief systems and rituals. The findings point to the embeddedness of the forest resource in the way of life of the Loita Maasai and the appropriation of the ritual/sacred element as a framework to negotiate and mediate access, use, and conservation outcomes. The Loita community is grappling with and responding to the pressures exerted by various forces on the Loita Enaimina Enkiyio in socially innovative ways, as exemplified in the conservation efforts by the Ilkimpa Community Conservation Association (ICCA). It leverages aspects of the sacred in negotiating its claims over the Enaimina Enkiyio forest, showing that community-driven initiatives present alternative approaches capable of maintaining the connection between communities and their resource commons by integrating the sacred in this connection.

Challenges and Opportunities Resulting from Mau Forest Evictions of Ogiek Community, Kenya

This paper presents the results and discussions of the objective of the study, which assessed the challenges and opportunities resulting from the evictions of the Ogiek people from the Mau Forest Complex. The study looked at the challenges faced by the Ogiek and the government following the evictions. Secondly, it examined the opportunities that the Ogiek community and the government experienced after the evictions. Public interest and human needs theories underpinned the study. The study used a descriptive research design. The study sampled 465 respondents, who included 384 household heads, 1 county commissioner, 2 deputy county commissioners, 7 chiefs, 14 village elders, 1 county police commander, 2 sub-county police commanders, 5 conservationist organizations, 5 environmentalist groups, 1 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) officer, 1 UN Habitat officer, 1 officer from the ministry of environment, 10 officers from Kenya Forest Service (KFS), 10 officers from Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), 5 officers from NGOs, 1 officer from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), and 15 heads of NGOs and CBOs. The study applied simple random, purposive, and census sampling techniques. Interviews, questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGD), and observation made up the data collection instruments. SPSS version 26 was used to analyze quantitative data and was presented in tables, graphs, and charts. The study examined the challenges and opportunities of Mau forest evictions, where poaching, animal attacks, hunger, malnutrition, mental illnesses, and poor health plagued the Ogiek community. The study recommends clear and transparent guidelines regarding the eviction process and any form of compensation set and discussed with the affected households so as to avoid unnecessary impoverishment and protect livelihoods. This information is useful as it will better inform forest managers, policymakers, and other actors in their efforts to fairly and responsibly manage and balance ecological and social development. The study suggests that the government of Kenya adopts a more humane and sustainable relocation policy and involves the Ogiek community in decision-making and investment in alternative livelihoods.

Effects of Mau Forest Evictions on Human Security of the Ogiek Community, Kenya

Forest communities have had to globally endure evictions, sometimes forceful, due to the need for governments to conserve the environment by protecting forests from negative human actions. The Ogiek are hunters and gatherers and rely mainly on wild fruits, beekeeping, and game hunting as a source of livelihood. Animals, e.g., hyrax, were hunted. The Ogiek's lives and sources of livelihood are highly dependent on the forest. The Ogiek community of Mau Forest, Kenya, is a forest community that has faced a similar fate since the colonial period. This study sought to establish the effects of Mau Forest evictions on the human security of the Ogiek community in Kenya. The study used a descriptive research design. The study sampled 465 respondents, who included 384 household heads, 1 county commissioner, 2 deputy county commissioners, 7 chiefs, 14 village elders, 1 county police commander, 2 sub-county police commanders, 5 conservationist organisations, 5 environmentalist groups, 1 UNEP officer, 1 UN Habitat officer, 1 officer from the ministry of environment, 10 officers from Kenya Forest Service (KFS), 10 officers from Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), 5 officers from NGOs, 1 officer from the National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), and 15 heads of NGOs and CBOs. The study applied simple random, purposive, and census sampling techniques. Interviews, questionnaires, FGDs, and observation made up the data collection instruments. SPSS version 26 was used to analyse quantitative data. The data revealed that the Mau forest evictions had negative effects on Ogiek human security, including deaths (86%), injuries (97%), destruction of homes (98%), farms (80%), livestock (52%), illness (95%), lack of sanitation (92%), gender-based violence (69%), disruption of schooling (100%), loss of culture (94%), separation from family (88%), loss of livelihoods (98%), and increased human-wildlife conflicts (78%). 100% of respondents feared for their safety. The study revealed that the evictions had negative effects on the Ogiek community on virtually all seven elements of human security, namely economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. The study contributes to the literature on indigenous land rights and human security, informs policymakers, and assists policy implementers in carrying out government directives without violating people's rights. It is also essential for civil society leaders. The study recommends that clear and transparent guidelines regarding the eviction process and any form of compensation be set and discussed with the affected households so as to avoid unnecessary impoverishment and protect livelihoods. The study further reckons that the government should adopt a more humane and sustainable relocation policy and provide alternative ways of livelihood to the victims.

Evaluation of the Relationship between Spatio-Temporal Variability of Vegetation Condition Index (VCI), Fire Occurrence and Burnt Area in Mount Kenya Forest Reserve and National Park

Climate change, vegetation dynamics, human activities and forest management influence the occurrence of fires. This study investigated the spatio-temporal variability of the Vegetation Condition Index (VCI) and its influence on fire occurrence in three different land use types in Mount Kenya Forest Reserve and National Park (MKFRNP): National Park (NP), Forest Stations (FS) and Farmlands (FL). The study used MODIS satellite data to obtain the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), the VCI, the number of fires and the burnt area. The specific objectives of this research were (i) to examine the spatio-temporal variability of VCI, fire occurrence and burnt area in MKFRNP from 2003 to 2018 and (ii) to explore the relationship between VCI, fire occurrence and burnt area in different areas of the MKFRNP (NP, FS and FL). The findings show that even though fires occur throughout the year in MKFRNP, most of the fires occur during dry seasons. The relationship between spatio-temporal fire occurrence and VCI distribution is different for each land use type. In the FL, the probability of fire ignition and the number of fires per month was more or less the same irrespective of the VCI because of the traditional use of fire as a land management tool. However, the probability of fire ignition and the number of fires per month is high in the NP and FS when the VCI is below 50% (drought), especially in the dry seasons, when and where the impact of meteorological conditions and climate have much more impact than human activities. In addition to the efforts already made by communities, KFS and KWS in the fire fighting and monitoring system, satellite data can be useful to acquire accurate and timely information on the VCI and the likely spatio-temporal occurrence of fires in order to be prepared in the most fire-prone periods and improve fire management, the planning of resources and fire suppression activities in MKFRNP.

Mapping deforestation and recovery of tropical montane forests of East Africa

Deforestation poses a major threat to the tropical montane forest ecosystems of East Africa. Montane forests provide key and unique ecological and socio-economic benefits to the local communities and host diverse flora and fauna. There is evidence of ongoing deforestation and forest clearance in these montane forests although estimates diverge among different sources suggesting rates of 0.4%–3% yr−1. Quantifying deforestation rates and forest disturbance is critical to design conservation and sustainable management policies for forest management. This study quantified the rate of deforestation and forest recovery over the last three decades for the Mau Forest Complex and Mount Elgon forests in Kenya and Uganda using Landsat time-series satellite imagery. With the analysis, classification accuracies of 86.2% and 90.5% (kappa 0.81 and 0.88) were achieved for the Mau Forest Complex and the Mt Elgon forests, respectively. 21.9% (88,493 ha) of the 404,660 ha of Mau forest was lost at an annual rate of −0.82% yr−1 over the period between 1986 and 2017. More positively, 18.6% (75,438 ha) of the forest cover that was disturbed during the same period and is currently undergoing recovery. In Mt Elgon forest, 12.5% (27,201 ha) of 217,268 ha of the forest cover was lost to deforestation at an annual rate of −1.03% yr−1 for the period between 1984–2017 and 27.2% (59,047 ha) of the forest cover disturbed is undergoing recovery. The analysis further demonstrated agriculture (both smallholder and commercial) was the main driver of forest cover loss in Mau forest, accounting for 81.5% (70,612 ha) of the deforestation, of which 13.2% was due to large scale and 68.3% was related to the smallholders. For the Mt Elgon forest, agriculture was also the main driver accounting for 63.2% (24,077 ha) of deforestation followed by the expansion of human settlements that contributed to 14.7% (5,597 ha) of forest loss. This study provides accurate and novel estimates of the rate of deforestation for the Mau forest complex and Mt Elgon forest ecosystems. These rates are higher than previously estimated and recent deforestation has been identified, which provides a quantitative basis for forest restoration programs and to design conservation policies.

Influence of Settlement Activities on Sustainable Households’ Livelihoods of the Inhabitants in Mount Elgon Forest, Bungoma County, Kenya

Mount Elgon Forest has declined primarily due to anthropogenic activities. The aim of this paper was to investigate the influence of settlement activities on sustainable household’s livelihoods of inhabitants in Mount Elgon Forest, Bungoma County, Kenya. This study used cross-sectional research design and mixed methodology. The target population was 12842 household heads, 4 ward administrators, 12 chiefs, 1 Kenya Forest service personnel and 1 NEMA official. A sample of 373 household heads, 4 ward administrators, 12 chiefs, 1 Kenya Forest Service Personnel and 1 NEMA official took part in the study. Questionnaires, interview guides and Focus Group Discussions were used to collect data. Validity was determined by consulting supervisors while reliability was ascertained through piloting and use of Cronbach Alpha Coefficient. Quantitative data was analysed using frequencies, percentages, means, Standard deviation and Pearson Correlation analysis. Qualitative data was thematically classified and arranged before being reported in narrations and quotations. Analyzed data was presented using tables and figures. The study found a significant positive correlation between settlement activities and sustainable households’ livelihoods (r = .614; p = .000). It was recommended that there was a need to devise ways of reducing population density and land fragmentation leading to reduced dependency on forest products. The findings of the study will be crucial to professional bodies and institutions such as Kenya Forest service, Kenya wildlife service and NEMA in relooking at the approaches that enhance livelihoods among forest users and thus come up with strategies for effective management of forests improving on sustainable livelihoods.

The soil microbiomes of forest ecosystems in Kenya: their diversity and environmental drivers

Soil microbiomes in forest ecosystems act as both nutrient sources and sinks through a range of processes including organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, and humic compound incorporation into the soil. Most forest soil microbial diversity studies have been performed in the northern hemisphere, and very little has been done in forests within African continent. This study examined the composition, diversity and distribution of prokaryotes in Kenyan forests top soils using amplicon sequencing of V4-V5 hypervariable region of the 16S rRNA gene. Additionally, soil physicochemical characteristics were measured to identify abiotic drivers of prokaryotic distribution. Different forest soils were found to have statistically distinct microbiome compositions, with Proteobacteria and Crenarchaeota taxa being the most differentially abundant across regions within bacterial and archaeal phyla, respectively. Key bacterial community drivers included pH, Ca, K, Fe, and total N while archaeal diversity was shaped by Na, pH, Ca, total P and total N. To contextualize the prokaryote diversity of Kenyan forest soils on a global scale, the sample set was compared to amplicon data obtained from forest biomes across the globe; displaying them to harbor distinct microbiomes with an over-representation of uncultured taxa such as TK-10 and Ellin6067 genera.

‘We are our land’—Ogiek of Mount Elgon, Kenya: securing community tenure as the key enabling condition for sustaining community lands

AbstractWe outline how securing the community tenure rights of forest peoples can create a rapid, rights-based route to the effective and sustainable conservation of their forests. We draw on the different skillsets and experiences of the authors (long-term fieldwork, mapping and monitoring, and a lifetime of experience) to identify the conditions that enable the Ogiek of Chepkitale, Mount Elgon, Kenya, to sustain and be sustained by their lands. We also identify the conditions that drive the disruption of this sustainable relationship through an appropriation of Ogiek resources by external interests that threaten to degrade, alienate and destroy their ecosystem. It is increasingly recognized that securing sustainable conservation outcomes can be best achieved through the deep knowledge, connection and commitment that ancestral communities have regarding their lands. Evidence from Mount Elgon and more broadly shows that Indigenous Peoples are better guardians of their forests than international or state protection agencies. This challenges the idea that evicting forest peoples is the best way to protect forests. Other studies, including those conducted by the Kenyan governmental Taskforce on Illegal Logging, highlight the way Kenyan state agencies such as the Kenya Forest Service have been responsible for the severe depletion of Indigenous forests. We examine how collective community control can enable decisions to be made in line with taking care of community lands over the long term, but also highlight how this ability is under constant threat until and unless national law and practice recognizes the collective tenure rights of such communities.

Where to fish in the forest? Tree characteristics and contiguous seagrass features predict mangrove forest quality for fishes and crustaceans

Abstract Mangroves often support rich fish and crustacean communities, although faunal abundance and diversity show strong spatiotemporal variability. Consistent patterns in mangrove animal communities might be dictated by forest characteristics, by seascape context or by some combination of these factors. Predicting drivers of spatial heterogeneity in mangrove faunal communities can better support the zoning of forests for management purposes, for example by identifying sites important for fisheries nursery provision. We sampled 14 sites within a large (4000 ha) mangrove forest in Kenya, quarterly over a period of 2 years. There were clear and consistent differences in the quality of sites for fish and crustacean abundance and diversity. Forest characteristics (as summarised by the complexity index, CI) and seascape metrics (the presence, area and configuration of contiguous seagrass) were strong predictors of site differences. However, they showed opposite influences on dominant members of the fish and crustacean faunas, with CI correlated negatively with fishes and positively with crustaceans, and seagrass area correlated positively with fishes and negatively with crustaceans. Synthesis and applications. Sites within the same mangrove forest exhibit consistent differences in fish and crustacean abundance. However, the fish and crustacean communities (and particularly dominant species within them) act differently in response to forest and seascape characteristics. Old growth, mature forest, set in a seascape of seagrass patches with bare sediment, was associated with highest crustacean abundance. In contrast, denser smaller trees and seascapes with larger, continuous areas of seagrass correlated better with fish abundance. Zoning for management, as mandated in new Kenyan policy, will need to consider these differences in seascape use between fish and crustaceans.