Forestry Commission Research Articles

Figs S1-S3 & Tables S1-S2

Fig. S1. Rhizophagus intraradices: culturing history of the type and successful ex-type culture attempts (ATT 4) and a new isolate (ATT 1102) from the type location established approx. 30 years later. Both pot cultures (PC) and root organ cultures (ROC) are shown with dates of establishment and voucher numbers for samples that yielded specimens for preservation in herbaria. Sun bags are item B7062, Sigma Aldrich (https://www.sigmaaldrich.com). Location of cultures: Forestry Commission Northern Research Station or other localities in UK; Université catholique de Louvain (UCL); Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU). Gel refers to a small portion of substrate from a parent ROC, with a single spore, several spores, or root fragments (usually with attached mycelium).Fig. S2. Phylogenetic maximum likelihood phylogenetic tree of Rhizophagus species and isolates characterised for the SSU-ITS-LSU rDNA region, with Sclerocystis as outgroup. Bootstrap (BS) values below 60 % and BS values of terminal sister relations are not shown. “Rhizoglomus venetianum” (= R. irregularis) sequences are marked in red, sequence variants characterised in a Rhizophagus irregularis genome project are marked in blue. Sequences of Rhizophagus intraradices cultures derived from the ex-type culture FL 208, including the epitype (voucher W 5719 from MUCL 52327 = ATT 4-83), are shown in green and sequences of the new isolate collected from the type locality (MUCL 49410 = ATT 1102-12) in brown.Table S1. Rhizophagus intraradices: lengths and widths (µm) of extra- and intraradical spores from two strains, ATT 4 and ATT 1102 spores with inferential statistics (number of spores observed (n), minimum value (Min), first quartile of the data (Q1), median, third quartile of data (Q3), maximum value (Max), mean, standard deviation (SD) and % coefficient of variation (CV %)). Table S2. Rhizophagus intraradices: spore colours from two strains (ATT 4 – type and ex-type) and ATT 1102 (new culture from type locality) from pot cultures (PC) and root organ cultures (ROC). Where possible, colours were matched with charts from Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Munsell, or Methuen Handbook of Colour.

Forest Management Regimes and Drivers of Forest Cover Loss in Forest Reserves in the High Forest Zone of Ghana

Forest cover loss, particularly those arising from deforestation and forest degradation, is largely driven by human activities and has attracted global attention over the decades. Globally, countries have adopted strategies to manage and conserve forests in response to these human disturbances. Ghana’s strategy to ensure sustainable management of the forest and its estate was to zone the forest into management regimes based on the resource availability and the object of managing those particular areas. Whilst forest degradation and its drivers and actors have been widely reported in Ghana, it is not known how forest management regimes influence these issues. Focusing on four forest reserves in the high forest zone of Ghana, this paper used interviews of key forest stakeholders, analysis of Forestry Commission field reports, and field verification to demonstrate the effect of forest management regimes on drivers of forest degradation. A combination of many proximate and underlying factors was observed to drive degradation in a synergetic way. The main drivers which were identified and their corresponding actors varied and manifested differently across management regimes. The strive by forest landowners to earn revenue from the protected forest, perceived unfair payment of ground rents for protected areas by Timber Utilization Contract holders, poor forest management practices on the part of forestry personnel, nondeterrent penalties, poor forest monitoring, the granting of compartment re-entry permits to harvest residual yield, overdependence on few species, weak enforcement of forest regulations, and perceived corruption on the part of forestry officials were the major underlying factors that impact on how the drivers manifested in various regimes. Our study reveals that the primary forest stakeholders of the country are the main actors of forest degradation and have developed various means convenient for specific regimes that enable them to benefit from the forest at the expense of conservation.

Do riparian buffer zones and new forest management practices reduce stream suspended sediment loads?: Re‐visiting the Afon Tanllwyth in Hafren Forest, Plynlimon, 20 years on

AbstractStudies of forest clear‐felling operations in 1995–97 in the Afon Tanllwyth sub‐catchment of the upper River Severn on Plynlimon, mid‐Wales, by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3), indicated elevated suspended sediment loads (SSLs) immediately following timber harvesting. UK Forestry Commission (1993) Forests and Water Guidelines recommended that riparian buffer zones adjacent to streams were left unplanted. This study 20 years on assessed the SSLs at the same point in the Afon Tanllwyth for 21 months between January 2017 and September 2018. While SSLs reported by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3). increased during and after the clear‐felling operations, by 2017–18 (20 years later) they appear to have recovered to levels similar to those measured pre‐clear‐felling (1995), despite this study taking place only a few months after approximately 3 ha of mature forest was clear‐felled on the north side of the catchment. Although the mean monthly SSL for 2017–18 of 1628 ± 95 kg is slightly lower than the 1,800 ± 176 kg reported for 1995, the difference is not significant. When SSL is corrected for differences in total monthly flow the flow adjusted SSLs are 1,346 ± 132 kg for 1995 and 945 ± 55 kg for 2017–18, thus significantly lower in 2017–18. These new data for 2017–18 indicate that SSLs seem to have recovered to levels significantly below those measured and reported by Stott et al. (Journal of Environmental Management (2001), 63, 3–25) in 1995 pre‐clear‐felling period, likely as a result of the establishment of the 50 m buffer zone.

The Militarisation of Conservation and Occupational Violence in Sikumi Forest Reserve, Zimbabwe

Discussions around the militarisation of conservation have largely focused on violence meted out against subsistence and commercial poachers in, and around, protected areas. Overlooked is violence experienced by perpetrators of such violence. Using lived experiences of anti-poaching in Sikumi Forest Reserve—a state forest managed by Zimbabwe's Forestry Commission—this article examines working experiences of paramilitary personnel. Empirical evidence shows that, in the process of implementing state militarised conservation practices, paramilitary personnel are subjected to violence perpetrated by the state through its authorities. I discuss this violence in the context of occupational violence and make two arguments. The first is that the range of victims of militarised conservation violence goes beyond local communities and commercial poachers to include paramilitary personnel perpetrating such violence. Related to this argument is the second argument that occupational violence has an exacerbating effect on everyday persistent violence. I conclude that aspects of occupational violence, such as displayed in Sikumi Forest Reserve, should be understood as part of broader green violence.

A GIS and remote sensing aided assessment of land use/cover changes in resettlement areas; a case of ward 32 of Mazowe district, Zimbabwe

The research assessed land use/cover changes and their socio-economic impacts on local resident farmers in ward 32 of Mazowe District. A mixed method research design that combines both qualitative and quantitative approaches was adopted. Questionnaires, interviews and observations were employed to gather data from the field. GIS and Remote sensing techniques were used for land use/cover change detection and calculations. Data collected from the field was analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25.0 and Microsoft excel. Arc map 10.5 was used to analyze Remote sensing data. Four major land use/covers namely forest, grassland, water and cultivated were identified as baseline land covers of Mazowe ward 32 in 2000. The research revealed that there has been significant loss in forest, grassland and wetland/water cover and gain in cultivated and bare land cover between 2000 and 2018 in ward 32 of Mazowe District. Scarcity of high energy tree species, fruit trees, construction poles and extinction of wild animals are some of the observed impacts of forest cover loss. The study recommends that Mazowe EMA, RDC and Forestry Commission should cooperate in monitoring natural resources in Mazowe District to ensure sustainable utilization.

Local attitudes toward the cultural seasonal hunting bans in Ghana’s Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary: Implications for sustainable wildlife management and tourism

This study investigated the attitudes of the people living in three adjacent communities close to the Bomfobiri wildlife sanctuary in Ghana concerning the observation of the cultural, seasonal closures of hunting. The cognitive and motivational approaches to attitude theory in wildlife management guided, under the phenomenology method, the collection of qualitative data on the importance of the seasonal closure of hunting and its implementation challenges. This inquiry was deemed crucial to improving the disjointed relationship between park management and local communities that often make wildlife conservation and tourism difficult at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary. Forty-five key wildlife stakeholders, including park officers, traditional authorities, elderly residents, and bushmeat traders, were purposively selected with some interviewed personally and others engaged in focus group discussions. Despite a more significant number of stakeholders admitting the importance of the seasonal closure of hunting, some challenges impeded its implementation. These included the absence of alternative arrangements to support hunters during the period for the annual closure of hunting; lack of proper sensitisation and education on the hunting ban; absence of transparency in the equitable sharing of proceeds from wildlife tourism at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary among park officers (Government) and the traditional authorities; the booming bushmeat business and the fear of losing customers after the fallow period; and purported corruption on the part of park officers, threatening the observation of the seasonal closure of hunting. The study has offered proactive suggestions to the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission and mainly to park management at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary on how to address these challenges and improve wildlife management and sustainable wildlife tourism potentials in Ghana. Paramount among them is the tactful provision of alternative sources of livelihood and the establishment of enterprises in non-timber forest products as sources of income for hunters during the seasonal hunting ban.

De Pago por Servicios Ambientales Hidrológicos a Fondos Concurrentes: estudio de percepción social en una comunidad forestal de Oaxaca, México

Esta investigación contribuye a la discusión sobre el futuro del programa federal de Pago por Servicios Ambientales Hidrológicos (PSAH) y su posible transición hacia los Mecanismos Locales de Pago por Servicios Ambientales a través de Fondos Concurrentes (MLPSA-FC). Se desarrolló un análisis de percepción social con actores clave involucrados en el proceso de aplicación (proveedores, usuarios e intermediarios) sobre los efectos sociales, económicos y ambientales generados en una comunidad forestal de Oaxaca, México. A partir de entrevistas semiestructuradas aplicadas en 2016-2017, se identificó que los usuarios se inclinan hacia los MLPSA-FC; no obstante, los intermediarios y los proveedores prefieren el PSAH. Al parecer, la transición no se da por una decisión voluntaria, sino en un contexto de alta competitividad e insuficiencia presupuestaria para sustentar el programa federal de PSAH por parte de la Comisión Nacional Forestal (CONAFOR). En este sentido, es necesario elaborar evaluaciones de los efectos, desde un enfoque integral, de los esquemas de PSA en México, así como estudios de comparación de los efectos generados por los programas federales y los mecanismos locales desde perspectivas inter y transdisciplinarias.

Impact of community participation in adaptive wildlife resources management at Mole National Park, Ghana

Purpose: Wildlife resources constitute indispensable nature’s strongholds for human livelihoods strategies in forest, savanna zones across Ghana and the worldwide although, it often engendered conflicts. Impact of community participation on adaptive wildlife resources management was strategically assessed at Mole National Park. Research methodology: 60 randomly selected park environs residents were interviewed for valid responses using semi-structured questionnaires. Findings: High wildlife products demand has transformed bush meat into lucrative business through poaching by thousands of youths and adults, causing habitat destruction and sharp wildlife population decline. Hunters, poachers, middlemen, restaurant operators constituted game-trade-market-value chain. Limitations: Funding subjectivity reduced scope of the study to only few communities in dry season. Temptation to reject the questionnaires on suspicion of force evacuation plots against some park adjoining villages was later refuted. Hence, recovery rate was 100%. Contribution: We recommend that Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission should strengthen synergies on community participation in adaptive wildlife management by coopting educational interventions that positively influence indigenous behaviors through seminars, workshops, face-to-face interactions. This will better define the rights, roles, responsibilities of key partners towards resolving communal wildlife conflicts. Keywords: Community participation, Wildlife management, Park sustainability, Poaching, Game-trade-market-value chain

Using International Trade Data to Inform the Plant Health and Biosecurity Response in the UK

Plants are essential for supporting human life, providing food, oxygen and medicine as well as benefits to health from interacting with nature. Plants also play a crucial role in ecosystems and in mitigating the effects of climate change. The importance of plants to humans and to the environment is gaining a higher level of attention in today's political and social landscape. The Great Britain Plant Health and Biosecurity Strategy will be updated this year to reflect upcoming challenges for maintaining high biosecurity standards while the Tree Health Resilience Strategy protects our trees going forward, allowing for adaption to environmental change and building resilience to future threats. Additionally, 2020 is the FAO's International Year of Plant Health providing a unique opportunity to raise the profile of plant heath further on a global scale. Critical to biosecurity is the global trade in plants and plant commodities which may offer us the option to grow plants that are more suited to a future, warmer climate and thus more resilient to climate change, but which brings with it an increased risk of invasive pests and diseases. It is important that we protect our native species and minimise the risks of introducing new pests and diseases. The UK's plant health regime aims to manage that risk to protect the value of plants and trees, both as crops and forestry products, as well as ecosystem services and societal benefits. The UK is a net importer of plants and plant commodities and it is the role of the Plant Health and Seeds Inspectorate (PHSI) and the Forestry Commission (FC) to carry out checks on imported material. Given that there are over 1,000 pests on the UK Plant Health Risk Register the challenge cannot be understated. It is unrealistic to expect that we can provide effective protection from all pests and diseases so potentially serious pests which are identified by the UK Plant Health Risk Group are subject to a detailed pest risk analysis (PRA) following internationally agreed methodologies. Import inspections are risk-based and use the outcomes of the PRA as the basis for focusing resource to the highest threats. The experimental statistics released by Defra in March 2020 'Plant Health – international trade and controlled consignments, 2014–2018' were developed to address some of the evidence gaps around plant health related trade and the value of plant health, and to provide users with information on the work of import inspectors.

Análisis de los actores sociales en la implementación de políticas forestales: el caso de la Asirmi

La descentralización en el sector forestal se ha apoyado en la gestión de asociaciones regionales de silvicultores (ARS) y prestadores de servicios técnicos forestales (PSTF) para ejecutar políticas públicas en las unidades de manejo forestal (Umafor). El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo describir y analizar los papeles que han jugado la Comisión Nacional Forestal (Conafor), la Asociación de Silvicultores Región Miramar (Asirmi) y el PSTF asociado en la implementación del Programa Especial de Conservación, Restauración y Aprovechamiento Sustentable de la Selva Lacandona en el estado de Chiapas (PESL) entre 2010 y 2015. El muestreo utilizado fue la bola de nieve y se aplicaron 49 entrevistas semiestructuradas. También se realizó observación participante y recorridos de campo. La participación de la Conafor se redujo cada vez más debido a los recortes presupuestales y sus responsabilidades se limitaron a decidir si canalizaba o no más recursos económicos. La función de la asociación fue un requisito en la aprobación de los proyectos. El PSTF tuvo como atribuciones participar en la promoción, gestión y operación de los proyectos. Por lo tanto, sus acciones fueron determinantes para poder atraer diversos proyectos a la asociación y en la forma que se desarrollaron los distintos proyectos en el terreno.

Profiting from illegality: A discursive analysis of the chainsaw operation in rural Ghana

Chainsaw milling has in recent times gained currency in public discourse in Ghana. Governments over the years have tried to curtail the activity but such attempts have always met strong resistance from the locals who engage in the operation as a means of livelihood. A critical analysis of the industry is necessary for a sustainable livelihood development. This paper, through empirical research, uses discourse analysis to examine the politics of chainsaw operation in Ghana, focusing on what push locals into it in spite of attempts to curb it. Our findings indicate that for most people, unemployment, corrupt government officials, lack of agricultural lands and inadequate policy response to domestic timber demand are the reasons for getting into the industry. However, the rules and regulations as well as the monitoring regimes, coupled with complex ambiguous relationships between state agencies, large-scale lumber and milling companies, traditional authorities and chainsaw operators, together entrench chainsaw activities in the country. Our findings provide a different approach to state agencies' discourse on chainsaw dominated by buccaneering and criminalisation narratives in Ghana. Rather than the antagonistic tactic towards the chainsaw phenomenon by the Forestry Commission and other state bureaucracies, they could initiate policy and legislative reforms to help tidy up the chainsaw operations in Ghana.

USING GUYANA’S MONITORING REPORTING & VERIFICATION SYSTEM TO GUIDE NATIONAL FOREST MANAGEMENT & DECISION MAKING

Abstract. The Guyana Forestry Commission’s (GFC) Monitoring, Reporting and Verification System (MRVS) is a combined Geographic Information System (GIS) and field-based monitoring system, which has underpinned the conducting of a historical assessment of forest cover as well as eight national assessments of forest area change to date. The System seeks to provide the basis for measuring verifiable changes in Guyana’s forest cover and resultant carbon emissions from Guyana’s forests, which will provide the basis for results-based REDD+ compensation in the long-term. With the continuous compilation, analysis and dissemination of MRVS results on a typically annual basis, the GFC envisioned a larger role for this data, in informing national processes such as natural resources policy and management. This resulted in a significant broadening of the application of the MRVS data and products for purposes that are aligned or complementary to national REDD+ objectives and forest policy and management. These broader applications have allowed for a beneficial shift towards the increased use of remote sensing data and scientific reporting to inform forest management, governance and decision making on natural resource management across forested land. This has resulted in a transformation in the nature of data available to inform decision making on forest management and governance, and overall environmental oversight, from predominantly social science data and factors to now incorporating remote sensing and scientific observations and reporting. Primary decision makers are turning to scientific based reporting to determine best approaches for developmental initiatives in Guyana. This study shows how Guyana has demonstrated significant progress in making remote sensing products accessible and useful to policy makers in Guyana.

Perception of Forest Stakeholders on Logging Ban in Cross River State, Nigeria

The study examined the perception of forest stakeholders on the ban on logging in Cross River State, Nigeria. The research was carried out from October, 2014 to January, 2015. Data was collected through the administration of structured questionnaire to 351 respondents that were randomly selected from four forest stakeholders, including: forest communities, Forestry Commission staff, timber dealers and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) on environment. One local government area was selected purposively, from each of the three senatorial districts of the state. Findings shows that majority (86.9 percent) of the respondents were males, in the age brackets of 30-50 years, while 8.5 percent were in the age brackets of 20-29 years of age. Most of the respondents (62.4 percent) had secondary education, while farming, civil service, trading and logging, constitute 81.8 percent of the respondents’ occupation. Findings revealed that majority of the respondents from forestry commission (100 percent), timber dealers (100 percent), forest communities (98.3 percent) and NGOs (96.2 percent) were aware of the ban on logging. Most of the respondents from forestry commission (42.3 percent), timber dealers (41.4 percent), forest communities (45.0 percent) and NGOs (38.5 percent) agreed that the reason behind the ban on logging was to protect and conserve the State’s remaining forests. Findings revealed that the ban on logging did not reduce timber exploitation as claimed by 65.4, 74.3, 55.5 and 61.5 percent of the respondents from forestry commission, timber dealers, forest communities and NGOs respectively. Furthermore, 65.4, 95.7, 87.8 and 53.8 percent of the respondents from the stakeholders affirmed that prices of sawn wood increased during ban. Result also indicated that there was a significant increase (P< 0.05) in the prices of sawn wood during the ban. Majority (96.2, 61.4, 86.9 and 61.5 percent) of the respondents attested that some people who depend on logging activities, lost their means of livelihoods and majority (92.3, 85.7, 91.3 and 96.2 percent) of the respondents agreed that taskforce members were corrupt. Again, majority of the respondents from forestry commission (69.2 percent), timber dealers (90.0 percent) and forest communities (59.0 percent) agreed that they want the ban on logging lifted.

Fiabilidad temática de puntos de calor e incendios forestales en Michoacán, México

Introduction: Wildfire monitoring programs were first implemented in Mexico at the end of the last century; however, there are no studies that report their accuracy in detecting fires and hotspots. Objective: To evaluate the thematic accuracy of hotspots and wildfire records in a region of Michoacan de Ocampo, Mexico. Materials and methods: Rapid Eye high spatial resolution images were classified to detect fire scars. The images were crossed with hotspot maps from the MODIS sensor, processed by the National Commission for the Knowledge and Use of Biodiversity (CONABIO), and from the MODIS, AVHRR and GOES sensors, processed by the National Meteorological Service (SMN), as well as with wildfire records from the National Forestry Commission (CONAFOR). Detection rates and confusion matrices were generated to assess accuracy. Results and discussion: The detection rate was higher with the CONABIO MODIS sensor (>75 %) in categories greater than 50 ha. The overall accuracy of hotspots was 62 %; however, the errors of omission (underestimation) and commission (overestimation) were 85 and 34 %, respectively. The fires reported by CONAFOR lack spatial coincidence with respect to scars, so the accuracy analysis was discarded. Conclusion: The use of hotspots, according to detection rates, is ideal for fires exceeding 50 ha. The thematic accuracy of hotspots and fire records should be evaluated at the beginning of a study.

Evaluación de la supervivencia en sitios reforestados como indicador de la restauración del paisaje en el Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Nevado de Toluca

Gran parte de los ecosistemas forestales del planeta han sufrido degradación principalmente por prácticas relacionadas con el cambio de uso de suelo para fines agropecuarios, incluida la tala ilegal. El Área de Protección de Flora y Fauna Nevado de Toluca no queda exenta de los efectos de la deforestación y la degradación del bosque templado. Instituciones de gobierno, academia y sociedad civil han emprendido acciones de restauración y recuperación en favor de esta área protegida. El objetivo de este trabajo es presentar los resultados de la evaluación de la supervivencia de 144 plantaciones realizadas por Reforestamos México, asociación civil sin fines lucrativos, durante los años 2011 a 2015. El índice de supervivencia propuesto por la Comisión Nacional Forestal (Conafor) para evaluar el éxito de las plantaciones estima la cantidad de árboles vivos y muertos para obtener el porcentaje de supervivencia de cada predio con base en el número de árboles plantados para las plantaciones de los años 2014 y 2015. Además, se midió el vigor de los árboles y se determinó la especie que presentó la mejor respuesta de crecimiento y desarrollo únicamente para las plantaciones de los años 2014 y 2015. Las mayores supervivencias se localizaron en los parajes Latas Viejas (82%), Cerro Prieto (79%) y San José de las Huertas (79%), municipio de Zinacantepec, Estado de México, mientras que la menor supervivencia (36%) fue localizada en el paraje Cerro Gordo, en el mismo municipio. Pinus montezumae fue la especie que logró la mayor supervivencia (73%), mientras que Pinus hartwegii obtuvo la menor (70%). Esto último puede estar asociado a las pendientes pronunciadas, los suelos compactados por anteriores usos de suelos, el crecimiento de herbáceas por un mal mantenimiento y la presencia de ganado, factores que limitaron la supervivencia de las plantas.

Fire control systems in forest reserves: An assessment of three forest districts in the Northern region, Ghana

Forest fires may have beneficial effects ecologically, but can also be damaging to the overall health and diversity of flora and fauna and may also result in loss of farm produce and livelihood base of local communities living around the forest reserves. In order to minimize damage from fires to the forest vegetation, information on frequency, timing and control of fire events is needed for decision making at the district and regional management levels of the Forestry Commission. However, not much of such information exists, particularly for northern Ghana. Therefore, this research sought to ascertain occurrences of forest fires and how they are controlled in three (3) Forest Districts in the northern region of Ghana namely: the Tamale, Yendi and Walewale Forest Districts. Respondents comprised staff of Ghana Forestry commission, members of fringe communities and personnel from the Ghana National Fire Service. A mixed method research design involving structured interview schedule, in-depth interviews and quantitative review of secondary data was employed for data collection. Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages while qualitative data was analyzed using simple narratives. The study revealed that detection by smoke was the dominant means of detecting fires within the forest reserves. December and January were the months with the most fire occurrences and periods between 2 and 4 h and greater than 8 h were the dominant timeframes within which fires were controlled. Inadequate firefighting equipment and lack of effective cooperation between regulatory institutions and community members were identified as major constraints to effective control of forest fires. Active collaboration between regulatory agencies and members of fringe communities among others are recommended for effective control of wildfires in forest reserves in northern region of Ghana.

“Forestry officials don't have any land or rights here”: Authority of politico-legal institutions along Ghana's charcoal commodity chain

Abstract Property theory suggests that in legal pluralist societies people secure rights to resources by seeking out institutions that can sanction and validate their claims. This validation legitimates their property claims. Simultaneously, the institutions build and solidify their authority as property-granting entities vis-a-vis competing authorities. In Ghana the charcoal commodity chain involves rights recognized by both formal and customary institutions. A detailed study of property and authority in the context of Ghana's charcoal chain is done by focusing on institutions that mediate people's access to resources, how these institutions mediate access, and how the authority of institutions has changed over time. This study shows how chiefs, having no legal mandate in trees, are gaining authority over Ghana's charcoal production. Chiefs' authority is drawn from long-established customs and social structures in land/tree management, as well as validation of claims by establishing policing groups to enforce fees. Chiefs contest each other and, at the same time, contest and push the state out from communities. Consequently, the Forestry Commission has very limited de facto authority over trees despite its de jure mandate in this arena. The legitimacy of institutions stems from the coercive and customary-social ability to control access to resources and opportunities.

FAO Assists in Enhancing the Resilience of Mountain Communities and Environments

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has played a leading role in sustainable mountain development within the United Nations system. It was appointed task manager for Chapter 13 of Agenda 21 in 1992 and acted as the lead agency for the International Year of Mountains in 2002. Since 2003, FAO has been mandated by the United Nations General Assembly to lead the annual observance of the International Mountain Day on 11 December.Both the Secretariats of the Mountain Partnership and the European Forestry Commission Working Party on the Management of Mountain Watersheds are hosted by FAO in Rome, Italy, by the Water and Mountains Team in the Forestry Department. The aim of the Water and Mountains Team in FAO's Forestry Department is to assist in enhancing the resilience of mountain communities and environments. Its expertise lies in resilient watershed management, sustainable mountain development, and forest and water. The team advocates support for mountain environments by calling for targeted investments and mountain-related policies, and by collaborating with local communities to develop their capacity for sustainable development.

Mesolithic and later activity at North Barr River, Morvern

At North Barr River, Morvern (NGR: NM 61430 57082), inspection of forestry planting mounds on a raised beach terrace identified a chipped stone assemblage associated with upcast deposits containing charcoal. An archaeological evaluation of the site, funded by Forestry Commission Scotland, sought to better understand the extent and character of this Mesolithic and later prehistoric lithic scatter. The lithic assemblage is predominantly debitage with some microliths and scrapers. The range of raw materials including flint, Rùm bloodstone and baked mudstone highlights wider regional networks. Other elements, including a barbed and tanged arrowhead, belong to later depositional episodes. Two mid-2nd millennium BC radiocarbon dates were obtained from soil associated with some lithics recovered from a mixed soil beneath colluvial deposits. The chronology of a putative stone bank or revetment is uncertain but the arrangement of stone may also date to the 2nd millennium BC.

Sustainable management of native landscape / woodland in the transition to a low carbon society

The losses of natural and native landscape, mostly to agricultural practices are a significant concern for both atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses and biodiversity. This paper conducts a critical analytical review of Hill Holt Wood (HHW) a Social Enterprise in the UK in light of criteria derived from recommendations identified and compiled by the UN, Intergovernmental and the UK Forestry Commission. Identifying successful strategies from the HHW experience, the paper's objective is to establish a future framework that can be adapted and adopted following contextual and cultural identities in order to provide a legacy to assist in the appropriate management of our natural landscape. In an attempt to accelerate the transition to a low carbon society, the paper concludes by inaugurating the lessons learnt from the HHW model into “A Framework Legacy for the Appropriate Management of Natural Landscape and Woodlands”, contributing to the current body of literature, providing a tool to be used by varied users to encourage and affect changes in individual and national behavior and impacting policymakers. The paper is valuable in assembling and analysing the diverse benefits of the HHW initiative and the lessons learnt; including social, economic and environmental positive outcomes of the project.