Forest Restoration Programs Research Articles

Understanding the mediating role of labor out-migration in household income generation and distribution under a reforestation policy in rural China

Income inequality is a critical issue of socio-economic development, particularly in rural areas where forest-dependent people are often vulnerable to the intervention of forest policies. This paper aims to elucidate income distribution and inequality of rural households influenced by China's largest reforestation policy implemented in early 2000s. Drawing on socioeconomic and demographic data from household surveys in two rural sites, we applied the Gini coefficient to measure income inequality and used a regression-based approach to examine the underlying factors that are associated with income generation among households. We also performed a mediation analysis to test the role of labor out-migration in shaping household income distribution under the reforestation policy. Results show that remittances sent by rural out-migrants substantially contribute to household income but tend to worsen inequality, particularly for households having retired cropland for reforestation. The inequality in total income depends on capital accumulation for land endowment and labor availability that render diversified livelihoods possible. Such linkage reveals regional disparity, which, along with policy-implementing institutions (e.g., rules for tree species choice for reforestation), can influence income generation from a given source (e.g., agriculture). Rural out-migration of female labor significantly mediates the economic benefits of the policy delivered to the households with an estimated mediating share of 11.7%. These findings add value to the knowledge of poverty-environment interrelationships in a sense that supporting rural livelihoods of the more vulnerable and underrepresented groups is essential for securing and sustaining the stewardship of forests. Policymaking for such forest restoration programs needs to integrate strategies for targeted or precise poverty alleviation to strengthen the conservation effectiveness.

Amazonian dark earths enhance the establishment of tree species in forest ecological restoration

IntroductionDeforestation of areas for agriculture and cattle breeding is the leading cause of ecological degradation and loss of biodiversity. The solution to mitigate these damages relies on techniques that improve soil health and the microbial quality of these degraded areas. Here, we demonstrate that the high nutrient and microbiological contents of Amazonian Dark Earths (ADE) can promote the development of trees used in ecological restoration projects.MethodsWe used degraded soil from crops as control and ADE from the Central Amazon to conduct the experiment, using 20% of ADE as inoculum in degraded agricultural soil. Our goal was to assess whether a small amount of ADE could promote changes that improve plant development similar to its growth under a 100%ADE. We simulated conversion from pasture to forest restoration area by planting U. brizantha in all pots. After 60 days, we removed it and planted Cecropia pachystachya, Peltophorum dubium, and Cedrela fissilis.ResultsOur results demonstrated that both 20%ADE and 100%ADE treatments increased pasture productivity and, consequently, soil carbon stock. Also, in these treatments, P. dubium and C. fissilis had better growth and development, with 20%ADE plants showing a performance similar to those planted in 100%ADE. Both 20%ADE and 100%ADE showed similar numbers of taxa, being significantly higher than in the control soil.DiscussionThe 20%ADE was sufficient to increase significantly the microbial richness in the soil, providing several beneficial microorganisms to all tree species such as Pedomicrobium, Candidatus Nitrososphaera, and members of Paenebacillaceae. Nevertheless, C. pachystachya, a common pioneer tree in the Amazonian Forest showed a small response even to 100%ADE with a corresponding lower taxa number than the other two species. In conclusion, we point out that microbial structure remains very similar among plants but dissimilar among treatments, highlighting the role of ADE as an enhancer of plant development and beneficial microbiota enrichment in the rhizosphere. The use of 20%ADE was sufficient to alter the microbial community. Therefore, we believe our data could contribute to speeding up forest restoration programs by adopting new biotechnological approaches for forest restoration ecology.

Assessment of Post-Fire Phenological Changes Using MODIS-Derived Vegetative Indices in the Semiarid Oak Forests

Wildfire has significant impact on plant phenology. The plants’ phenological variables, derived from time series satellite data, can be monitored and the changes in satellite imagery may be used to identify the beginning, peak, and end of the growing season. This study investigated the use of remote sensing data and land surface phenology (LSP) parameters to evaluate the impacts of fire. The LSP parameters included the start of growing season (SOS), the length of the growing season (LOS), the end of the growing season (EOS), maximum greenness of the season (Gmax), and minimum greenery in the season (Gmin) in the fire-impacted, semiarid oak forests of Iran. These LSP parameters were extracted from multitemporal normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and enhanced vegetation index (EVI2) data, acquired from MODIS sensor images in Zagros of the Ilam province in western Iran. By extracting LSP indices from the NDVI and EVI2 data, the indices were compared between burned forest areas, areas surrounding the burned forests, and unburned areas and for timesteps representing pre-fire, fire (i.e., year of fire), and post-fire (i.e., 2 years) conditions. It was found that for the burned area, there were significant differences in Gmax and the day that Gmax occurred. Furthermore, there was also a significant difference in Gmin between the pre- and post-fire conditions when NDVI was used and a significant difference between Gmax when EVI2 was used. The results also showed that in both time series there was a significant difference between the burned and control area in terms of Gmax. In general, the results showed that the fire had a negative effect on LSP, but in the two years after the fire, there were signs of forest restoration. This study provides necessary information to inform forest and resource conservation and restoration programs.

РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ ДЛЯ ОЦЕНКИ ЭКОСИСТЕМНЫХ ПРОГРАММ ПО ВОССТАНОВЛЕНИЮ ЛЕСНЫХ ЛАНДШАФТОВ

The concept of forest landscape restoration is a world-renowned approach to harmonizing national programs for the development of a green economy and sustainable management of natural capital resources. Despite the benefits, one of the obstacles to the large-scale implementation of a forest landscape restoration program is the lack of a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis, which can be a powerful tool for policymakers and potential investors to increase interest in investing in forest landscape restoration programs. The main objective of the review is to describe a practical methodology for rapidly, realistically and reliably assessing the economic impacts of forest landscape restoration. The authors describe a methodological framework that helps stakeholders develop an individual tool for making investment decisions. The proposed structure consists of a simple four-step process. It provides guidance and tools for each stage. This methodology will raise awareness among investors and policymakers, as well as development professionals working in the field of forestry. Cost-benefit analysis as a decision-making tool is well studied, but the report should help to fully take into account the benefits of forest landscape restoration programs and convey them to a wider audience. The methodology is applicable for users with different needs and access to resources.

Botanical validation of Ecclinusa (Chrysophylloideae: Sapotaceae) from forest remnants using molecular analysis as a complementary method to morphological identification

ABSTRACT In the context of a forest restoration program in a mining area in the eastern Brazilian Amazon, the objective of this study was to identify the species of trees of abiu-seringarana (Ecclinusa sp.) in forest remnants adjacent to the mine. As the identification of Ecclinusa based on external morphology alone is difficult, it was corroborated by molecular analysis. Leaf samples of three trees were compared with Ecclinusa in the Embrapa herbarium collection. DNA was extracted with a CTAB modified protocol for sequencing with ITS markers. Both the morphological identification and the alignment of the obtained sequences with material in GenBank indicated that the individuals belong to Ecclinusa guianensis, which is confirmed as the species occurring in the mining area.

Land Use and Landscape Characteristics Are Associated with Core Forest Patches in Ghana

Land uses and terrain characteristics would likely influence the types and spatial arrangements of forest patches, and generally, forest fragmentation. Whereas prior research has focused mainly on direct land use-induced forest fragmentation, this study models the relationship between the spatial distribution of core forest patches, land uses, and terrain variables. Relying on Landsat images from the Atewa Range Forest Reserve (ARFR) in Ghana, we use machine learning geospatial techniques and statistical methods to process satellite images and model the relationship between core forest patches and associated variables. The study finds that a unit reduction in elevation would significantly likely reduce by 0.995 times the possibility of forest patches being core forests, implying that on lower slopes, core forests are less likely to occur. Additionally, we find that a unit increase in slope gradient significantly increases the odds of a forest patch being among the core forest category by 1.35 times. Moreover, our results show that the odds of forest patches being core forests significantly increase by 1.60 and 2.14 times if patches are found beyond 1 km from logging sites and access roads, respectively. This implies that intact forest patches would likely be found on higher slopes, higher elevations, and areas far away from land uses. Based on the results, we suggest that the protection of forest patches should target higher elevations and slopes and most importantly areas far from land uses whereas forest restoration programs should target areas close to land uses and on lower elevations and lower slopes. With this study demonstrating a significant relationship between core forests, land uses and terrain variables, we present important information to land managers for land monitoring and conservation in the ARFR and other tropical forest regions of the world.

Selecting tree species to restore forest under climate change conditions: Complementing species distribution models with field experimentation

The long-term success of forest restoration programs can be improved using climate-based species distribution models (SDMs) to predict which tree species will tolerate climate change. However, as SDMs cannot estimate if species will recruit at these habitats, determining whether their predictions apply to early life-cycle stages of trees is critical to support such a usage. For this, we propose sowing seeds of the focal tree species under the current climate and simulated climate change conditions in target restoration sites. Thus, using of SDMs to design climate-adaptive forest restoration programs would be supported if the differences in habitat occupancy probabilities of species they predict between the current and future climate concurs with the observed differences in recruitment rates of species when sowed under the current climate and simulated climate change conditions. To test this hypothesis, we calibrated SDMs for Vachellia pennatula and Prosopis laevigata, two pioneer tree species widely recommended to restore human-degraded drylands in Mexico, and transferred them to climate change scenarios. After that, we applied the experimental approach proposed above to validate the predictions of SDMs. These models predicted that V. pennatula will decrease its habitat occupancy probabilities across Mexico, while P. laevigata was predicted to keep out their current habitat occupancy probabilities, or even increase them, in climate change scenarios. The results of the field experiment supported these predictions, as recruitment rates of V. pennatula were lower under simulated climate change than under the current climate, while no differences were found for the recruitment rates of P. laevigata between these environmental conditions. These findings demonstrate that SDMs provide meaningful insights for designing climate-adaptive forest restoration programs but, before applying this methodology, predictions of these models must be validated with field experiments to determine whether the focal tree species will recruit under climate change conditions. Moreover, as the pioneer trees used to test our proposal seem to be differentially sensitive to climate change, this approach also allows establishing what species must be prescribed to restore forests with a view to the future and what species must be avoided in these practices.

Ecosystem water use efficiency was enhanced by the implementation of forest conservation and restoration programs in China

The large-scale forest conservation and restoration programs (FCRPs) implemented in China have energetically promoted carbon sequestration and water consumption of terrestrial ecosystems. However, the impact of FCRPs on the coupling between them, that is, ecosystem water use efficiency (EWUE), remains unknown. Using the Mann-Kendall test and the Theil-Sen's slope estimator, we analyzed the EWUE trends of the FCRP-induced forest recovery zones (FFRZs) in the pre- and post-intensification phases of the programs. Then, the random quadrat comparison method was employed to compare the EWUE of FFRZs and that of their adjacent non-recovery zones (NRZs). We also performed partial correlation analysis and contribution analysis to investigate the response of EWUE to FCRP-induced forest recovery. Our study showed that the proportion of FFRZs presenting a significant increasing trend in EWUE expanded from 19.1% for the pre-intensification phase of FCRPs to 35.7% for the post-intensification phase. The EWUE of the FFRZs was significantly higher than that of their neighboring NRZs in arid and semi-arid regions whereas there was no significant difference between them in humid and semi-humid regions. EWUE was positively correlated with FCRP-induced tree cover in 74.6% of the FFRZs during the post-intensification phase of FCRPs. The average contribution of FCRP-induced forest recovery to EWUE change was 4.94 × 10-3 gC⋅mm−1⋅a-1 in the FFRZs, accounting for 39.1% of the total EWUE variation. We concluded that EWUE was significantly enhanced by the implementation of FCRPs in China. However, the EWUE increase could not be sustained by forest restoration in arid and semi-arid regions. Our study highlights that the implementation of FCRPs should pay more attention to the tradeoff between carbon sequestration and water consumption of ecosystems and be tailored to local conditions.

Social-ecological and institutional factors affecting forest and landscape restoration in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh

Bangladesh government has recently pledged to restore 0.75 million ha of degraded forestland as part of its commitment to the Bonn Challenge, however little is known about the potential challenges and opportunities involved in achieving that goal. Using secondary literature complemented by expert consultation and a field survey, we examined the outcomes and limitations of previous restoration programmes and identified key social, ecological and institutional aspects crucial for a successful forest restoration programme in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. The CHT region accounts for over a third of state-owned forests, and it supports a large part of the country's forest-dwelling ethnic populations, although most of the forestland is severely degraded. Our analysis revealed that past programmes had utilised participatory tree planting, horticulture and rubber-based agroforestry to restore degraded forestland and improve community livelihood in the CHT. However, past restoration programmes merely emphasised improving tree cover without considering the ecological functionality, biodiversity and carbon co-benefits of restored forests. The duration of these programmes was also relatively short, and there was no clear plan for engaging local communities in the restoration activities beyond the programme period. Among other things, the local ethnic community’s land rights issue remained unresolved and the participant's land ownership influenced their willingness to participate effectively in any restoration programme. Households with secured land rights had a more positive attitude towards participating in forestland restoration than those with unsecured land rights. Suitable acts and policies that would allow people to legally continue to use tree-based land in the regions (i.e. forest and land tenure rights) are also lacking. Future forest and landscape restoration (FLR) programmes may thus need to focus on improving the biodiversity and ecological functionality of those restored forests, resolving local people's forest and land tenure rights and involving them in site-specific restoration interventions. The engagement of local and regional-level multi-stakeholders in such an FLR programme is also essential for realising the restoration's multiple social and ecological benefits.

A Framework Payment for ecosystem services to reconstitute forest areas closed to grazing in the Ifrane National Park (Morocco).

Overgrazing constitutes the major constraint threatening the sustainability of the forest ecosystems in the Ifrane National Park. The operations of regeneration and afforestation impose to close areas to grazing over one period exceeding ten years, generally lead to the opposition of the local population to the programs of reconstitution of the forest ecosystems. To solve these problems, a text of compensation for closed perimeters of afforestation or regeneration to the grazing was established in 2002. The main aim of this study is to evaluate the role of the compensation mechanism described as a payment tool for forest ecosystem restoration programs. For this purpose, an analysis of quantitative and qualitative indicators, based on individual and semi-structure interviews, before and after the introduction of the compensation mechanism is used. The GIS mapping approach is also used to visualize some results spatially. Based on results, this mechanism contributed to conserving the forest ecosystem and enhancing rural livelihoods at the level of Ifrane National Park, resulting in the regression of the forest infractions with a rate of 48%. On the socio-economic level, this mechanism contributed to initiate a climate of trust resulting in the collaboration of the population with the foresters and, to carry out many projects of community interest generated socio-economic benefits relevant for the users.

Ground-Penetrating Radar Detection of Hydrologic Connectivity in a Covered Karstic Setting

Increasing demand for water for agricultural use within the Dougherty Plain of the southeastern United States has depleted surface water bodies. In karstic landscapes, such as the Dougherty Plain in southwest Georgia where the linkages between surface and ground waters are close, there is a need to understand the physical characteristics of the subsurface that allow these close linkages. Having a better understanding of the subsurface characteristics will aid numerical modeling efforts that underpin policy decisions and economic analyses. Two common features on this karstic landscape are draws and geographically isolated wetlands. Using LiDAR, aerial imagery, and ground-penetrating radar, this study investigates the subsurface characteristics of a draw and a series of geographically isolated wetlands. GPR reflections indicative of karst features are laterally continuous and connect the landscape to the nearby Ichawaynochaway Creek. The identification of the size and scale of the laterally continuous karstic features will guide the implementation of groundwater models used to determine irrigation and forest restoration programs while minimizing the impacts of water use on surface streams and the ecosystems.

Seedling ectomycorrhization is central to conifer forest restoration: a case study from Kashmir Himalaya

Over the past few decades, many countries have attempted to carry out forest landscape restoration over millions of hectares of degraded land. Such efforts, however, have met with limited success because of several factors, including a lack of adequate emphasis on ectomycorrhization of the nursery seedlings. A similar scenario is seen in the Kashmir Himalaya, where the natural regeneration of degraded forests is poor despite ample restoration efforts by forest managers. To overcome this challenge, we identified two promising ectomycorrhizal species, namely Clitocybe nuda and Cortinarius distans, for their use in ectomycorrhization of seedlings of three common conifers, namely Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, and Picea smithiana. Laboratory studies were carried out to investigate the requirements for optimum mycelial growth of these ectomycorrhizal fungi. Best ECM mycelial growth was obtained in the basic MMN medium containing glucose as the source of carbon and nitrogen in ammonium form. C. distans showed higher growth than C. nuda across all the treatments and also proved significantly more effective in enhancing the survival and growth of the conifer host plant seedlings. The present study resulted in standardizing the requirements for mass inoculum production of the two mycobionts which could help in successful forest restoration programmes.

Designing forest restoration projects to optimize the application of broadcast burning

Active forest restoration programs on western US national forests face multiple challenges to meet their broad ecological goals while designing projects that generate sufficient revenue to build and maintain private forest management capacity needed to expand the scale and scope of treatments. We explored ways to design projects where admixing of treatments along gradients of dry and moist mixed conifer forest types could maximize financial viability while including substantial area where broadcast burning could be applied in conjunction with other treatments. In general, we found that restoration treatments in dry forests that included density reduction thinning and broadcast burning resulted in a net projected cost ranging from $110 to $8000 per ha. By contrast, density reduction thinning in moist mixed conifer forests on more productive microsites generated significant commercial timber volume and projected revenue that ranged from $4000 to $20,000 per ha. We used spatial optimization methods to identify potential project areas that maximized revenue while meeting constraints to treat a minimum proportion of each project with broadcast burning. Multiple project area sizes were also explored to understand the effect of restoration scale on financial outcomes. We found that optimal projects in terms of generating revenue to subsidize density reduction and broadcast burning were 810 ha and contained >50% dry forest area. Larger projects and those with a higher percentage of dry forest area resulted in lower revenue, eliminating revenue when projects reached 2700 ha. Forest restoration programs can use these methods to plan and design restoration projects that are financially viable while addressing the broadcast burn backlog in dry forests that require relatively expensive fuel reduction treatments prior to re-introducing fire.

Perception and Awareness of Local Community to A “Green Wall” Forest Restoration Programme in the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park, Indonesia

Forest restoration activities have been being carried out across the globe in order to improve degraded forest ecosystem. For Indonesia context, forest restoration in conservation areas need to consider both ecological aspects and regulating access for the community. A study on perceptions and awareness of local community towards restoration program was conducted from April to May 2021 in Cihanyawar Village, Sukabumi District, West Java, Indonesia. The village located adjacent to the Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park (GGPNP), one of Indonesia’s conservation area that has been gazeted as UNESCO’s biosphere reserve since 1982. The objective of this study is to assess perception and awareness of local community towards “Green Wall” restoration program in the GGPNP. We employed questionnaires method for assessing socio-economic of community. Socio-economic analyses of 100 respondents show that they are at the age range between 30 -50 years (48%), low education level (73%), the majority work as farmers (96%), with the income ranging from 1 to 3 million Rupiah (US$ 69 to 207) per month (83%). Based on respondents’ age, education level, occupation, and income level, they have a moderate level of perception and awareness of green wall restoration program. Chi-square test shows that the level of community perception is not influenced by age and education levels but influenced by occupation and income levels. While the community awareness level is not influenced by age, occupancy and income level, but influenced by the education level. The results of the study provide evidence that restoring ecosystem is important for the social and economic aspects of communities around conservation area.

The Critically Endangered Hainan Gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) Population Increases but not at the Maximum Possible Rate

With the ongoing global biodiversity crisis in the Anthropocene, it is critical to understand how to save endangered species to “bend the curve” of biodiversity decline. The Hainan gibbon (Nomascus hainanus) is a Critically Endangered species that is endemic to Hainan Island. We performed two synchronized total count surveys in Hainan Tropic Rain Forest National Park in November and December of 2020 and 2021 by locating gibbon groups from their morning calls and conducting detailed counts in all potential habitat fragments. We compared our findings with existing data to model the population trend, and analyzed the potential and realized reproductive potentials. We found 5 groups with a total of 33 gibbons in 2020 and 35 in 2021, including 4 and 6 solitary individuals respectively. This is an increase of 169% since 2003, when there were 13 individuals with 2 groups and 2 solitary individuals. Logistic and linear curves fitted the 2003-2021 population census data equally well. Although the population is growing, it has not realized its full reproductive potential (when all adult females give births at 24-month intervals), suggesting that external factors like available habitat, as well as nutritional, physiological, and behavioral factors may be limiting the population. The gibbon’s recovery demonstrates that establishing a nature reserve with regular patrols, banning logging, curbing poaching, and environmental education have been effective. Because the Hainan gibbon population is still extremely small, carefully planned conservation actions, including an ambitious forest restoration program, will be needed to ensure the species’ continued survival.

Model development to estimate site index values for six major tree species in North Korea

Due to considerable deforestation in North Korea, there is a need to plan forest restoration programs based on scientific forest management. In this study, a methodology was developed for estimating the site index values of six major tree species and the forest productivity potential. The site index values of these tree species were derived in South Korea using the Chapman-Richards equation. These values were used with data from the 6th National Forest Inventory, which included 20 types of edaphic, topographic, and climatic factors, and random forest analysis—a widely used machine learning technique for spatial prediction—to develop a new model for estimating the site index values of these species across South Korea. The prediction accuracy of this model was evaluated using the root mean square error. The results show that the prediction accuracy was high, with a root mean square error of ~ 1 m. Moreover, the importance of the variables related to climate and geography was generally high. The proposed site index estimation model for six tree species was applied across North Korea, and its effectiveness tested by comparing the estimated values with those reported in literature from North Korea. The differences between the model outputs and recorded data in the northern alpine regions were presumably due to the lack of data for high-altitude regions in South Korea. This model is based on the determination of the suitability of tree species in restoration efforts. Therefore, it can contribute to the evaluation of forest productivity in North Korea and may help plan efficient forest restoration programs.

Effect of growing media on morpho-physiological quality attributes of Tetraclinis articulata seedlings

Tetraclinis articulata (Vahl.) Master or thuya is facing several constraints to its successful natural regeneration in Morocco. Containerized seedlings plantation is the only method adopted in thuya forest restoration programs and post-transplant water stress produces high seedling mortality after the first summer following outplanting. There is thus a real need to improve nursery seedlings quality, especially enhancing the growth of the root system by improving the water holding capacity of the root plug. Our aim was to assess the effects of clay on the water holding capacity of the growing media and on various morphological and physiological traits of T. articulata seedlings in the nursery. T.articula seedlings were raised in nursery using nine composite substrates; seedlings quality was evaluated according to their morpho-physiological and performance attributes. This investigation determined that a clay content of 20–25% constitutes an optimum for obtaining seedlings with a good root growth potential and high root viability. Excessive clay content in the growing media resulted in water-logged root plug decreasing root growth potential. This investigation found that morphological attribute as Root Collar Diameter and Root/Shoot ratio could be considered good predictors of Root Growth Potential.

The evolution of forest restoration in India: The journey from precolonial to India's 75th year of Independence

AbstractThis paper examines the history of forest restoration in India. While contemporary literature often emphasizes the novelty of forest restoration programmes as exemplified in large‐scale global pledges such as the Bonn Challenge or the Trillion Trees initiative, we show that forest restoration has thousands of years of history in India. Furthermore, this history plays an important role in shaping current restoration efforts, in ways that often undermine restoration goals. We find four themes in this history: the definitions of forests changed as the national administration metamorphosed, the philosophy behind the afforestation practices transitioned from commercial to a focus on forest cover that still underemphasizes ecological and subsistence values of forests, the involvement of forest‐dependent people in forest restoration has been limited by government policies through much of this period, and current restoration practice draws more from the history of commercial timber production than from contemporary restoration science. Drawing on these insights, we argue that restoration programmes need to be reconsidered in India.

Biochar and/or Compost to Enhance Nursery-Produced Seedling Performance: A Potential Tool for Forest Restoration Programs

Today, the use of nursery-produced seedlings is the most widely adopted method in forest restoration processes. To ensure and enhance the performance of transplanting seedlings into a specific area, soil amendments are often used due to their ability to improve soil physicochemical properties and, in turn, plant growth and development. The aim of the present study was to evaluate Populus euramericana growth and development on a growing substrate added with biochar and compost, both alone and in combination. To accomplish this aim, a pot experiment was performed to test biochar and/or compost effects on growing substrate physicochemical characteristics, plant morpho-physiological traits, and plant phenology. The results showed that biochar and/or compost improved growing substrate properties by increasing electrical conductivity, cation exchange capacity, and nutrient concentrations. On the one hand, these ameliorations accelerated poplar growth and development. On the other hand, amendments did not have positive effects on some plant morphological traits, although compost alone increased plant height, and very fine and fine root length. The combined use of biochar and compost did not show any synergistic or cumulative beneficial effects and led to a reduction in plant growth and development. In conclusion, compost alone seems to be the best solution in both ameliorating substrate characteristics and increasing plant growth, highlighting the great potential for its proper and effective application in large-scale forest restoration strategies.

From afforestation to forest landscape restoration in DPRK: Gaps and challenges

The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK) is currently in a state of severe deforestation and forest degradation, such that it was selected a beneficiary for Forest and Landscape Restoration (FLR) programs run by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). This study investigates the status and gaps in the implementation of FLR actions and analyzes the key challenges to FLR implementation. To accomplish this, I visited ministries relevant to forest and landscape restoration, selected and interviewed officials and professionals, and based our research on 10 years of experiences working in DPRK. Further, I proposed a roadmap for FLR implementation. Our results indicate that there is a need for a profound shift in attitudes towards the role of local people, recognizing that local people can be the main actors and partners in forest and landscape management. The reformation of the forestry sector and policies is needed to support the transformation of local livelihoods into a forest-friendly paradigm to exit the vicious cycle of “poverty and hunger–deforestation–environmental degradation–poverty and hunger.” Future FLR policies need to focus on the decentralization of forest management, clarification of forest tenure, and improvement of multi-sectoral cooperation and multi-level collaboration. The role of traditional knowledge and customary regulations should be highlighted, and forest management needs to be integrated into socio-economic development planning and programs.