Forest Practices Research Articles

Generative Learning and the Making of Ethical Space: Indigenizing Forest School Teacher Training in Wabanakik


 This reflection on community-driven research in process is written from the perspective of graduate student co-researchers collaborating with Wabanaki community co-researchers on a pilot project involving a Wabanaki and a non-Indigenous organization. Three Nations Education Group Inc. (TNEGI) represents three Wabanaki schools and communities in Northeast Turtle Island. The Child and Nature Alliance of Canada (CNAC) offers a Forest and Nature School Practitioner Course (FNSPC) for educators seeking to operate forest schools. These diverse organizations have developed a pilot FNSPC training for a group of TNEGI educators, with the purpose of Indigenizing the FNSPC. This is necessary to address the Eurocentric forest and nature school practices in Canada, which often fail to recognize the herstories, presence, rights, and diversity of Indigenous Peoples and places. TNEGI educators envision a land-based pedagogy that centers Wabanaki perspectives and merges Indigenous and Western knowledges. In the FNSPC pilot, the co-researchers generated course changes as they progressed through the pilot, decolonizing the content and format as they went. Developing this Indigenized version of the FNSPC will have far-reaching implications for the CNAC Forest School ethos and teacher training delivery. This essay maps our collaborative efforts thus far in creating an ethical research space within this Indigenous/non-Indigenous research initiative and lays out intentions for the road ahead.

Characterizing conservative and protective needs of the aridland forests of Sudan

Forests in the aridlands of Sudan are distinctive in nature and require special attention due to the great role they play as a first and last line of defense against southward desertification. Thus, to determine their conservative and protective needs based on current conditions in the Wad Al-Bashir Forest (WF), toward ensuring sustainable forest resources in these areas, we used a systematic field survey, existing and available documents review and key informant interviews (KII), to collect data from 08 December 2017 to 15 May 2018. A severe depletion and changes in the forest tree cover and composition were found during the field survey, where species such as Balanitis aegyptiaca is threatened and invasive species (e.g., Acacia nubica) have started to dominate. Reviewed documents have credited illegal cutting and agricultural activities for the changes in the forest status, whereas the KII indicated that past and current forest conservative and protective practices (CPPs), where forest clearance for agricultural, grazing, pests and disease control, were not given a deserved consideration as they relate to tree cutting and reforestation practices. Likewise, negligence of the needs of those who depend on the forest and inadequate funds have constrained implementation of some CPPs. Accordingly, on the basis of the results of this study, we recommend that CPPs associated with agriculture, grazing, forest fire, pest and disease control should be a top priority concern of forest authorities. Better financial support, which could be enriched by involving governmental and non-governmental organizations, is also needed to boost CPPs in the WF. Invasive species also need to be cleared and replaced by trees such as A. senegal and B. aegyptiaca that are of economic and environmental value.

Forest tenure and rights: a constraint to community forest management in Cameroon and the REDD+ initiative

The link between Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation, with the enhancement of forest carbon stock (REDD+) and Community Forest Management (CFM) as a necessary local action on the forest, is continuously being challenged. CFM has been a suitable option in achieving sustainable forest practices in the tropics. The factors that contribute to its success will likely contribute to the success of REDD+ programs in Cameroon. Nevertheless, the opportunity and challenges in integrating the two concepts to achieve the objectives require careful analysis, considering the challenges facing the country’s tenure system. This article makes use of an in-depth content analysis of several documents concerning the subject matter and tries to examine the extent to which forest tenure and rights are a constraint to CFM in Cameroon and the REDD+ Initiative and assess how these concepts can work together to achieve sustainable forest management and a reduction in deforestation and forest degradation. The assessment shows several bottlenecks and discrepancies concerning tenure rights in the community forest and carbon rights when it concerns incentive-based benefit-sharing mechanisms under the REDD+ process. It reveals that the state may likely maintain centralization of forest tenure if the issues are not clarified. The article concludes with a proposal of an urgent need for domestic legal reforms to secure forest protection achieve the objectives of international forest policy initiatives like REDD+.

Locating the subject of REDD+: between “improving” and safeguarding forest inhabitants’ conduct

REDD+ is a forest conservation and carbon trading scheme seeking to incentivise a reduction in emissions through payments. This article draws on Foucault’s governmentality concept and Dean’s analytics of government framework to analyse the REDD+ negotiations under the UNFCCC. It argues that negotiators perceived forest inhabitants as malleable subjects whose conduct can and should be “improved” through disciplinary techniques instantiated in forest monitoring practices. Forest inhabitants are not powerless or passive recipients of discipline, but these techniques foster a conduct that only values carbon at the expense of other ecological and cultural values and, further, encourage conservation purely based on cost-benefit reasoning. The article also interrogates the negotiations of safeguards meant to ensure that REDD+ does no social or ecological harm. It argues that the safeguards appear to allow forest inhabitants to decide on REDD+ implementation and governance, and protect their existing forest governance practices should they elect to do so. However, the safeguards are formulated in a voluntary manner, casting doubts on their ability to offer suitable protection. The article concludes by reflecting on the current demand for carbon credits from REDD+ projects and the implications this has for the disciplinary techniques and the conduct they foster.

Extinction accounting and accountability: Empirical evidence from the west European tissue industry

AbstractRecently, human activities are more and more invasive with respect to biodiversity. Several studies highlighted the key role played by accountants in contributing to the development of tools able to support company in assessing, reporting, and disseminating, as well as accomplishing, the preservation of natural species and ecosystems (King and Atkins, 2016). Corporate reporting of environmental information might increase the credibility of forest certifications, given that some scholars argued that certified forests are not often run, in a sustainable way. Moreover, certifications sometimes cover harmful forest practices (Elad, 2014) and do not ensure a good quality of environmental reporting and performance. The research question therefore intends to explore how extinction accounting and accountability (EAA) is able to reflect ex post the company's business strategy and, at the same time, influence ex ante its formulation by easing the prevention of deforestation risk and addressing the issue of credibility through specific actions. In more detail, the “Emancipatory Framework for Extinction Accounting and Accountability” (EFEAA) (Atkins and Maroun, 2018) was tested using content and interpretative analyses based on the reports inherent to top four companies working in West Europe in the tissue industry, where the preservation of forest heritage is a “compulsory route” for assuring the business sustainability, in terms of both raw material renewal and brand reputation. The findings highlighted the first attempt to carry out a qualitative research over the management of forest issues. In our study, companies tend to report advantages arising from the use of forest, but this kind of disclosure is too generic without providing evidence over the ecosystem services forests produce. Moreover, firm size affects the quantity and the quality of disclosure. At last, managerial implications and future research avenues are outlined and discussed.

Adapting forest management to climate change: experiences of the Nisga'a people

This study examines and characterizes the potential impacts of climate change on the lands of the Nisga'a Nation in British Columbia, Canada, and how these impacts might affect traditional forest practices. The study results were integrated with a review of current Nisga'a forest policy. The current forest policy has developed an inflexible approach to forest management that perpetuates a top-down decision-making framework inherited from the past relationship with the provincial government. Building from the experiences of the Nisga'a Nation, it is revealed that inflexible forest policies coupled with climate change impacts could lead the forest ecosystems to ecological thresholds. No approach by itself will be sufficient to meet the challenges these changes will bring to Indigenous peoples and society in general. An integrative approach, where the forest management is undertaken from a resilience point of view, is needed if current conditions are to be improved.

Forest Tenure and Sustainable Forest Management: Drawing Lessons from the Literature

The quest to foster sustainable forest management (SFM) in the era of sustainable development goals has reignited the debate on forest tenure concerns. Land and forest tenure insecurity has remained a major underlying cause of deforestation in Africa, which suggests that addressing tenure issues could effectively foster sustainable forest management. Adopting theoretical literature and drawing lessons from related empirical works, this study examines the role of land and forest tenure in sustainable forest management drive. Among other things, the study discusses how land tenure promotes or inhibits sustainable forest practices. The study outlines how frustrating tenure regimes deprive the community of the needed benefits and subsequent untoward behaviour unleashed on forests. The study concludes that the idea of tenure rights and tenure security has implications on sustainable forest management and admonishes a robust tenure regime that upholds local 'people's access to and usage of forest resources without sinister machinations and subjugation of local people. The study contends that determined rights and their long-term security remain crucial in attracting the tenure holders to make a strenuous investment in SFM since investments in forestry usually are made for the long term. Among other things, the study recommends for clarity and long-term security of ownership and tenure rights regarding forest products; a need to promote capacity-building for administrators and rights holders to adopt a sustainable mindset in their exploitation of timber products; and a need to foster stakeholder participation.

Role of Forest Related Policies and Laws on Sustainable Forest Management Practice: A Critical Overview

Following the rate with which forest resources get degraded, increasing attention has been paid to the conscious and sound efforts towards mainstreaming appropriate interventions to halt the menace. Following the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio 1992, the idea of sustainable forest management has become popular in the international arena which admonishes various member-states and local governments to adopt policies and laws to enhance sustainable forest practices. The idea of SFM has been reinforced by the recent Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest degradation sustainable biodiversity management (REDD+) policy. In that regard, attention to laws, policies and institutions towards sustainable forest management has increased. This paper adopts a desk review approach to assess the role of forest-related policies on sustainable forest management practices. Essential tools and strategies for SFM are discussed, including measures to enhance enforcement of SFM policies and procedures. The study argues that actor constellation; autonomy to local actors and external actors involved are crucial in the drive towards sustainable forest management. Keywords: sustainable forest management; policies; institutions; community involvement; enforcement DOI: 10.7176/JRDM/73-06 Publication date: February 28 th 2021

Effects of forest gap disturbance on forest ecosystem.

Forest gap disturbance has important consequences on plant species assemblage, stand structure and ecosystem functions of forests via changing micro-scale heterogeneity and community succession. Here, we reviwed research progress in the effects of forest gap disturbance on forest ecosystem. The effects of forest gap disturbance on plant species assemblage was analyzed based on the intrinsic biological characteristics and external environmental factors. The effects of forest gap disturbance on stand structure was discussed from the perspectives of texture and architecture of plant community. Forest gap disturbance effect on forest ecosystem functions was reviewed. After analyzing the theoretical shortcomings and the key bottleneck of forest ecosystem management practices, the following research directions were proposed, including the methods of determining threshold of forest gap, the mechanism of canopy closure, the effect of forest gap disturbance on forest ecosystem processes, and the relationship between forest gap disturbance and forest productivity. The advantage of forest gap disturbance in accelerating plant species regeneration and structure complexities could provide scientific evidence for enhancing the quality of low yield and low function plantations in China.

On the Question of Sustainable Forest Practices? An Assessment of Ghana’s Ratification of the Voluntary Partnership Agreement

Between 2015 and 2020, the rate of deforestation was estimated at 10 million hectares per year. Continued forest degradation raises serious socio-economic and environmental concerns which has led to policy proposals emanating from both local and international sources. What would make a sovereign country kowtow to externally driven policy intervention? This study contributes to the literature on sustainable forest management by assessing why countries would ratify interventions that are proposed by parties external to the sovereign state. Being the first country to ratify the European Union Voluntary Partnership Agreement (VPA), this study assesses the rationale for Ghana’s ratification of the VPA. The study adopts the qualitative case study design to purposively select key respondents who play critical roles in VPA value chain in Ghana. The study observes that although the VPA and its requirements are from external sources, they nonetheless fall in line with local ongoing efforts by the Forestry Commission of Ghana. The study concludes that a policy even if originates from external source is more likely to be embraced if does not challenge but feeds into government’s prevalent activities, the legitimacy of that agreement/policy and enforcement remains higher. The study argues for a convergence of local and external interventions and the development of innovative mechanisms to effectively manage forests sustainably, to improve peoples’ livelihoods, and protect natural resources. Keywords: Sustainability; forest management; VPA; Policies; sustainable livelihoods DOI: 10.7176/JRDM/73-05 Publication date: February 28 th 2021

Streams and rural abandonment are related to the summer activity of the invasive pest Drosophila suzukii in protected European forests

Protected native-forested areas may be occupied by fruit pests, and so, studies exploring the biotic and abiotic determinants of fruit-pest abundance in forested areas may reduce damages in crops and wild forest frugivores. The Spotted Wing Drosophila (SWD) Drosophila suzukii is an economically important fruit pest in many temperate regions around the world. During the dry summer in northwestern Spain, we assessed 24 native riparian and 32 non-riparian chestnut forest patches as non-crop habitats for the SWD. We surveyed chestnut forests in 2017 and found a positive association between spatial proximity of forest patches to streams and SWD captures, which led us to study in 2019 the stream-SWD associations in greater detail. We explored whether native-insect communities and changes in vegetation structure related to rural abandonment were associated with variation in SWD captures, while accounting for the effects of covariates, including stream distance. There were no significant associations in the riparian and non-riparian-habitat surveys between the captures of SWDs and those of native insects, including 22 families of flies and 10 families of parasitic wasps. However, captures of SWDs and of other drosophilid flies were positively related to each other and the direction of the association was reversed by stream distance, which suggests the potential role of streams in regulating interactions among non-riparian insects, including SWD. We also found correlative evidence that degraded riparian forests and the abandonment of traditional forest practices in chestnut forests may be contributing to the spread of SWD. Given the numbers of SWDs in our forest samples were similar to values in August in crop areas, it is advisable that future studies address the impacts of SWD invasion on native forest frugivores, which have been overlooked in studies of this widely distributed invasive species.

Combining Tree Species Composition and Understory Coverage Indicators with Optimization Techniques to Address Concerns with Landscape-Level Biodiversity

Sustainable forest management needs to address biodiversity conservation concerns. For that purpose, forest managers need models and indicators that may help evaluate the impact of management options on biodiversity under the uncertainty of climate change scenarios. In this research we explore the potential for designing mosaics of stand-level forest management models to address biodiversity conservation objectives on a broader landscape-level. Our approach integrates (i) an effective stand-level biodiversity indicator that reflect tree species composition, stand age, and understory coverage under divergent climate conditions; and (ii) linear programming optimization techniques to guide forest actors in seeing optimal forest practices to safeguard future biodiversity. Emphasis is on the efficiency and effectiveness of an approach to help assess the impact of forest management planning on biodiversity under scenarios of climate change. Results from a resource capability model are discussed for an application to a large-scale problem encompassing 14,765 ha, extending over a 90-years planning horizon and considering two local-climate scenarios. They highlight the potential of the approach to help assess the impact of both stand and landscape-level forest management models on biodiversity conservation goals. They demonstrate further that the approach provides insights about how climate change, timber demand and wildfire resistance may impact plans that target the optimization of biodiversity values. The set of optimized long-term solutions emphasizes a multifunctional forest that guarantees a desirable local level of biodiversity and resilience to wildfires, while providing a balanced production of wood over time at the landscape scale.

Forest management legacies affect demographics and population dynamics of spruce grouse in northern Maine

Conserving wildlife in managed forests requires knowledge of the interplay between species’ ecology and forestry practices. Spruce grouse (Falcipennis canadensis) are obligate residents of North American conifer forests with a southern range terminus in the northern U.S. We studied survival and reproduction of spruce grouse from 2012 through 2018 in north-central Maine, USA, within a landscape managed extensively for commercial forest products. We used radio telemetry data from 151 unique spruce grouse to monitor nest survival, brood success, and mortality of two age classes (juvenile and adult), and related these factors to a geospatial layer of stand harvest histories that provided a record of the timing and method of silvicultural treatments over the previous 30 years. We evaluated how demographic rates were affected by these forest practices, constructed stage-structured models of spruce grouse population growth, and used these models to quantify potential effects of management legacy on population dynamics. Nests in clearcuts with post-harvest treatments (herbicide and pre-commercial thinning) had lower success than those located in other stand types. Success of broods during summer increased with greater use of residual stands (unharvested for > 31 years), however, juvenile spruce grouse that made greater use of residual stands following independence had reduced survival. Adults that used a greater proportion of clearcuts lacking post-harvest treatments had the greatest annual survival. Deterministic and stochastic population models predicted values of λ < 1.0, suggesting population decline, and we found that λ was most sensitive and elastic to survival of adult females. Combined results from demographic analyses and our population model showed that greater use of untreated clearcuts by adult females had the largest potential to increase population growth, and that a stable to increasing growth rate (λ ≥ 1.0) could be achieved with particular combinations of stand use at different life stages. In this system the demographic mechanisms affecting relationships between forest management and spruce grouse population dynamics were complex. Ongoing changes in forest practices within the region may shift forests away from conifer-dominated composition, with negative consequences for the future status of the species.

The impacts of REDD+ on the social-ecological resilience of community forests

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) has emerged as an important and cost-effective climate change mitigation strategy internationally. In many localities around the world, REDD+ and related interventions have been superimposed on, and overlap with, existing decentralized institutional arrangements such as community forests. These interventions often modify local institutions through new rules and practices that comply with mostly carbon-related objectives, prompting questions about the compatibility of a top-down mechanism such as REDD+ with the decentralized approaches of community forestry. Thus, we asked: are REDD+ interventions in community forests enhancing or detracting from communities’ abilities to practice adaptive management and governance—key desired components of local social-ecological resilience and the ability of communities to respond to disturbance and global change? We conducted a systematic review of studies examining REDD+ interventions in community forests. We extracted data on 59 case studies reported on in 43 articles, stemming from 14 countries, with two thirds of the cases located in two countries alone. Our meta-analysis found that REDD+ has had mixed impacts on communities’ social-ecological resilience. Increases in network ties, connectivity across scales, and increased participation in decision making are indicators of enhanced potential for local adaptability. However, we also see that, through restrictions on local forest practices, rigidity in rules, and communities’ natural capital being locked into carbon contracts, REDD+ has limited communities’ ability to manage for uncertainty. While not representative of all existing REDD+ projects, our results suggest important implications for REDD+ policymakers and forest-reliant communities engaging in REDD+. Reconciling REDD+ goals with the need for forest communities to retain adaptive capacity will be a challenge moving forward, particularly if REDD+ compromises the ability of forest-reliant communities to respond to unexpected shocks or their ability to adapt to changing environmental or economic conditions.

Towards new seed orchard designs in Germany – A review

Abstract New first and 1.5 generation seed orchards are to be created in Germany based on recently assembled breeding populations of Acer pseudoplatanus, Larix sp., Picea abies, Pinus sylvestris, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and Quercus sp. To justify the high expenses in time and cost for orchard establishment and maintenance, planning should make use of consolidated knowledge and experience of both the national and international scientific community. Here, we briefly describe advances in genetic gains achieved through tree breeding, and resume population genetic aspects and design considerations to draw conclusions for clonal composition and spatial design of the new orchards. We conclude that to avoid outbreeding depression separate orchards are required for each breeding zone. The zones are species-specific and defined by ecological and climatic aspects. A minimum of 60-80 clones per orchard is recommended for native tree species with high proportions of natural regeneration in forest practice. This would allow future selective thinning based on estimated breeding values from progeny testing. It would also permit the transfer of seed orchard progenies into a naturally regenerating forest stands without the risk of a genetic bottleneck. Lower clone numbers are appropriate for non-native species and hybrids. It is important to strictly avoid inbreeding depression, achieved by using only one clone per progeny or population, from which the plus trees were selected. Further, the spatial layout should promote random mating by optimizing the neighbourhood of each clone. With all of these considerations taken into account, we expect superior quality traits and at least 10-15 % more volume from the new seed orchards.

Selective logging does not alter termite response to soil gradients in Amazonia

AbstractSelective logging has been widely employed as a management practice in tropical forests due to its reduced impact on biodiversity. However, by altering microclimatic conditions, logging could affect soil fauna responsible for nutrient cycling and the long-term dynamic of the forest. We investigated how selective logging affected termite species richness, composition, and the distribution of species in trophic groups, as well as the natural response of termites to gradients of soil conditions. Termites and edaphic variables were sampled in 32 permanent plots in southern Amazonia. Plots were subject to selective logging for 10–31 years before termite sampling. Time post-management was associated with changes in termite species composition, and wood-feeding termites were more abundant in recently logged areas. Nevertheless, most of the variation in termite species richness and composition can be attributed to the natural variation in soil clay content. Moreover, soil-dweller species, a vulnerable group strongly linked to soil decomposition, were present in all plots. These results suggest that the impact of selective logging on termite communities might be milder compared with other types of disturbance. It is likely that the decomposition process performed by termites, and consequently long-term ecosystem functioning, is preserved under selective logging.

Reducing intensification by shifting cultivation through sustainable climate-smart practices in tropical forests: A review in the context of UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration

The tropical forests provide important ecosystem services at local and global scales (i.e. climate regulation, carbon cycling, and food resources). Shifting cultivation (SC) is the most common traditional farm system in tropical forest landscapes, which along with hunting and gathering from forests, have been the main food sources and livelihoods. This traditional SC was probably sustainable for nomadic indigenous populations for centuries. However, the non-traditional shifting cultivation is a consequence of cultural changes of indigenous communities influenced by western culture that induce land-use changes using new technologies, promoting the high local-scale expansion and intensification, and overhunting. The intensification occurs due to the short-term farm system, low crop diversity or monocultures, and larger slash and burn forest patches inducing agricultural expansion due to higher commercial crop demand. This expansion and intensification determine the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, forest degradation and fragmentation, higher greenhouse gas emissions, defaunation and local extinction. Thus, degraded forest rehabilitation with different sustainable food systems (i.e. Agroforestry) can reduce the expansion and intensification of SC. Restored forest, agroforestry, and second-growth forests can be restored as reservoirs for valuable biodiversity and a host of different ecosystem services. Tropical forests are central to climate change mitigation efforts and should prioritize the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration. In this context, we provide a review on the effects of shifting cultivation intensification on tropical forest landscapes as a base to apply sustainable climate-smart practices in the context of UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.

A Study on tree species discrimination using machine learning in forestry

As the present state of forestry in Japan, the period of full-scale utilization of planted forests is approaching; consolidation of forest practices aimed at the stable and efficient supply of domestic timber is being promoted. Visualization of forest boundaries is important, however it takes a lot of cost and time because forest surveys are conducted by human’s exploration. This study proposes an efficient tree species identification method using deep learning method from aerial images of forests using drones for the purpose of visualizing forest boundaries. The effectiveness of the proposed method is confirmed by experiments using actual images taken by drones.

HeProMo: A decision support tool to estimate wood harvesting productivities.

In the field of forestry, one of the most economically important ecosystem service is the provision of timber. The need to calculate the economic effects of forest management in the short, medium, and long term is increasing. Forest operations or timber harvesting, which comprises felling, processing, and transport of trees or timber, are responsible for a large part of the costs and environmental impacts associated to forest management or enterprises. From a decision maker's perspective, it is essential to estimate working productivity and production costs under given operating conditions before any operation is conducted. This work addresses the lack of a valid collection of models that allows estimating time, productivities, and costs of labor and machinery for the most important forest operations in forest stands under Central European conditions. To create such models, we used data from forest enterprises, manual time studies, and the literature. This work presents a decision support tool that estimates the wood harvesting productivities of 12 different kinds of forest operations under Central European conditions. It includes forest operations using chainsaws, harvesters, skidders, forwarders, chippers, cable and tower yarders, and helicopters. In addition, the tool covers three models for wood volume estimation. The tool is written in Java and available open-source under the Apache License. This work shows how the tool can be used by describing its graphical user interface (GUI) and its application programming interface (API) that facilitates bulk processing of scientific data. Carefully selected default values allow estimations without knowing all input variables in detail. Each model is accompanied by an in-depth documentation where the forest operation, input variables, formulas, and statistical background are given. We conclude that HeProMo is a very useful tool for applications in forest practice, research, and teaching.

Family Forest Owner Management Decisions for Participants Enrolled in a Forest Property Taxation Program in Michigan

Family forest owners affect the ecosystem services that forests provide and, thus, their management decisions are of interest to the forestry sector. There are many programs available to help family forest owners reduce the management costs, some of which involve a reduced tax burden in exchange for active management. Research Highlights: this study is the first to examine the family forest owners enrolled in a statewide forest property taxation program in Michigan in order to understand how parcel characteristics affect management decisions. Background and Objectives: the goal is to understand the relationships between parcel characteristics and family forest owner management decisions for these program enrollees. Materials and Methods: a dataset of enrollment information was compiled and cleaned, which resulted in 20,915 unique forest stands in the state. Key variables analyzed via multinomial regression include stand condition, size, density, forest types, and forest practices. Results: region, forest type, and stand size significantly predicted forest practices. Conclusions: given that stand and parcel characteristics significantly predict forest practice, it may be useful to use these data, rather than self-reported management data from the owners themselves in order to understand future management trajectories of private forests. These data also describe forest practices of enrollees in a tax program, demonstrating that the program is successfully incentivizing management and shedding light on how these programs can promote conservation and stewardship of private forests.