Forest In Uganda Research Articles

Zika - another threat on the epidemiological map of the world.

Zika fever is an acute infectious disease caused by the Zika virus (ZIKV) of the Flaviviridae family and Flavivirus genus. It is transmitted by day-time active Aedes mosquitoes, and potentially by sexual contacts, blood transfusion, and from mother to foetus (resulting in microcephaly in a child). ZIKV was first isolated from a macaque monkey in the Zika forest in Uganda in 1947. The first case of the Zika fever in a human was recorded in Nigeria in 1954. Until 2007 only 14 cases of the disease were confirmed worldwide. In 2007, there was an outbreak of the Zika fever in Micronesia (Yap Island) with an estimated 5,000 cases. Between 2013 and 2015 a further outbreak of the disease occurred in the Pacific islands: in French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Cook Islands, Easter Island, and Solomon Islands. In 2015, the Zika fever spread to Brazil and more than 20 other countries in the South and Central America. Until March 2016, an estimated 1.6 million autochthonous cases of Zika have been reported globally, with approximately 1.5 million cases recorded in Brazil. Typically, 80% of Zika infections are asymptomatic. The most common symptoms of the disease include fever, maculopapular rash, muscle and joint pain, conjunctivitis. Zika fever can be diagnosed on the basis of clinical signs (it must be differentiated from dengue, chikungunya), ZIKV identification is also possible by the application of polymerase chain reaction in acutely ill patients and the detection of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to ZIKV. Until today, there is no effective antiviral treatment or an effective vaccine against Zika fever (in case of an infection only symptomatic treatment is applied). In August 2016 in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) Summer Olympic Games will take place, attracting thousands of athletes and spectators. The fight against the Zika fever and the race against time have gained momentum.

Variation in carbon isotope values among chimpanzee foods at Ngogo, Kibale National Park and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda.

Stable isotope values in primate tissues can be used to reconstruct diet in the absence of direct observation. However, in order to make dietary inferences, one must first establish isotopic variability for potential food sources. In this study we examine stable carbon isotope (δ(13) C) values for chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) food resources from two Ugandan forests: Ngogo (Kibale National Park), and Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Mean δ(13) C values for plant samples are equivalent at both sites. Plant δ(13) C values are best explained by a multivariate linear model including plant part (leaves, pith, flowers, and fruit), vertical position within the canopy (canopy vs. ground), and taxon (R(2) = 0.6992). At both sites, leaves had the lowest δ(13) C values followed by pith and fruit. Canopy resources have comparable δ(13) C values at the two sites but ground resources have lower δ(13) C values at Ngogo than Bwindi (-30.7 vs. -28.6‰). Consequently, isotopic differences between ground and canopy resources (4.2 vs. 2.2‰), and among plant parts are more pronounced at Ngogo. These results demonstrate that underlying environmental differences between sites can produce variable δ(13) C signatures among primate food resources. In the absence of observation data or isotope values for local vegetation, caution must be taken when interpreting isotopic differences among geographically or temporally separated populations or species. Am. J. Primatol. 78:1031-1040, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The Emerging Zika Pandemic: Enhancing Preparedness.

The Zika virus (ZIKV), a flavivirus related to yellow fever, dengue, West Nile, and Japanese encephalitis, originated in the Zika forest in Uganda and was discovered in a rhesus monkey in 1947. The disease now has “explosive” pandemic potential, with outbreaks in Africa, Southeast Asia, the Pacific Islands, and the Americas. Since Brazil reported Zika virus in May 2015, infections have occurred in at least 20 countries in the Americas. Puerto Rico reported the first locally transmitted infection in December 2015, but Zika is likely to spread to the United States. The Aedes species mosquito (an aggressive daytime biter) that transmits Zika virus (as well as dengue, chikungunya, and yellow fever) occurs worldwide, posing a high risk for global transmission. Modeling anticipates significant international spread by travelers from Brazil to the rest of the Americas, Europe, and Asia. What steps are required now to shore up preparedness in the Americas and worldwide?

ジカウイルス感染症（ジカ熱）と媒介蚊

Zika virus (Flaviviridae) is an emerging arbovirus. It was first isolated from rhesus monkeys in Zika forest in Uganda in 1947 and was isolated from Aedes africanus mosquitoes collected from the canopy of Zika forest in 1948. The first human case was reported in Nigeria in 1954. For half a century, the virus was reported to cause sporadic human infections in Africa and Asia, with mild symptoms comparable to dengue. In 2007, a Zika disease epidemic occurred in the Yap Islands, Micronesia. In 2013 a large epidemic was reported in French Polynesia with more than 70 cases of Guillain-Barre syndrome and other neurological conditions, and 333 confirmed Zika cases. There were more than 30,000 cases of suspected Zika infection in French Polynesia in 2013. Following this, a Zika outbreak on the Cook Islands of New Caledonia was reported, with 932 suspected and 50 confirmed cases, and 51 confirmed cases were reported on Easter Island in 2014. In early 2015, several patients presenting symptoms of mild fever, rash, conjunctivitis and arthralgia were reported in northeastern Brazil. It seems there were more than 1.5 million cases of Zika disease in Brazil. The Brazilian epidemic of microcephaly in newborn infants is of greater concern. In the northeastern states, a greater than 20-fold increase in the incidence of microcephaly was observed from 2014 to 2015. Some public health officials believe that there is a strong relationship between Zika virus infection in pregnant women and microcephaly. Microcephaly and other fetal malformations that are potentially associated with Zika virus infection or suggestive of congenital infection have been reported in Brazil, Cabo Verde, Colombia, French Polynesia, Martinique and Panama, although the incidence of microcephaly was different in each endemic country. Scientists at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reviewed the existing evidence and concluded that Zika virus is a cause of microcephaly and other severe fetal brain defects.

Zika Virus Infection: Perspectives as a Specialist of Pediatric Infectious Diseases

The Zika virus, a flavivirus related to dengue and Japanese encephalitis was discovered in the Zika forest in Uganda, 1947. Since Zika virus was first reported in Brazil in May 2015, infections have occurred in at least 40 countries, especially in the Americas. Zika virus infection usually is asymptomatic or causes mild illness, but may be related to severe clinical manifestations, particularly microcephaly and Guillain-Barre synd rome. Although the possibility of autochthonous Zika virus transmission in South Korea is low, the imported cases and Zika virus-transm itting mosquito should be adequately monitored and promptly managed. In addition, enhancing preparedness for Zika virus infection are needed.

A review on the incidence, interaction, and future perspective on Zika virus

Zika virus (ZIKV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae and genus Flavivirus. It is a single‑stranded positive‑sense ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus, has its origin traced to Zika forest in Uganda. Its infection leads to ZIKV fever, characterized by arthralgia, myalgia, rash, conjunctivitis, and asthenia. Clinical presentation of the infection is nonspecific and may often be confused with symptoms of other flaviviral diseases (dengue, West Nile [WN], and chikungunya). Recently, ZIKV has been associated with congenital malformations and neurological complications such as microcephaly and Guillain–Barre’ syndrome. The viral tropism revealed an infection of the skin fibroblasts, keratinocytes, and immature dendritic cells through enhanced expression of dendritic cell‑specific intracellular adhesion molecule 3‑grabbing nonintegrin or anexelecto (Greekword: 'uncontrolled’) and tyrosine protein kinase receptor 3 systems. Silencing of T‑cell immunoglobulin (Ig) and mucin domain 1 (TIM ‑1 ) and AXL RNAs has shown blockage of viral entry through their anti‑TIM ‑1 and anti‑AXL antibodies, hence serving as a potential target for ZIKV drug development.Biotechnological approaches targeted toward ZIKV vector control include the development of transgenic mosquitoes to disrupt the genome pool of wild strains and use of an endosymbiotic bacterium to prevent replication of arboviruses within its vector. Other approaches include the use of gene drive and exploration of the genetic redundancy to disrupt the receptors used by the virus to gain entry into its host. It is also imperative to explore the modality through which neutralizing antibodies block this viral infection as this may prove as a potential target to arrest the viral life cycle. KEY WORDS: Flavivirus, microcephaly and Guillain–Barre’ syndrome, mosquito, receptors, Zika virus

Zika: The Formidable Speed of Viral Spread

ZIKA: THE FORMIDABLE SPEED OF VIRAL SPREAD BY MICHELLE VERGHESE I n 1947, deep inside the Zika Forest of Uganda, a group of scientists studying yellow fever happened upon something unexpected. A Rhesus monkey they were studying had developed a fever. However, the disease ultimately isolated from the monkey’s serum was certainly not yellow fever: it was an undocumented virus that had been transmitted by a mosquito bite. A few years later, 12 unique strains of this virus were isolated in mosquitos in the tree canopy of the forest, and the virus was named after the forest in which it was discovered. Fifty years went by, and few cases of Zika in humans were reported. Then suddenly in 2007, Yap Island in Micronesia was struck by an outbreak that ultimately af- fected 75% of its residents. The perpetrator was identified as the same virus that had been discovered in the Ugandan forest. It proved to be acute and non-deadly in humans, causing only mild illness and no deaths or hospitalizations. 3 In 2015 during its Summer Olympics, Zika had reached Brazil. By 2016, Zika was identified in the United States and the World Health Organization officially declared a Global Health Emer- gency over what had become a worldwide viral epidemic. But how did Zika get here? How did a seemingly docile virus in the depths of an African Forest circle the globe in a matter of nine years? At the same time, why would an outbreak of a virus that is non-deadly prompt a global health warning? HOW DID A SEEMLINGLY DOCILE VIRUS IN THE DEPTHS OF AN AFRICAN FOREST CIRCLE THE GLOBE IN NINE YEARS? Zika is indeed both a non-deadly and acute virus; for the most part, the symp- toms are not severe. Once infected, a patient will experience 3-12 days of fever, Berkeley Scientific Journal | FALL 2016 red eyes, joint pain, headache, and a rash. In some cases, depending on the patient, the virus may even present asymptomati- cally. The Zika virus does not appear to be very threatening, but the same cannot be said for the complications that can result post-recovery: microcephaly and Guillain Barre’s syndrome. Microcephaly is a neurological condition and birth defect in which an infant’s brain is significantly underdeveloped, resulting in a head size that is smaller than normal. The first suggestion that microcephaly may be linked to Zika occurred in Slove- nia when a woman suspected of having Zika gave birth to a child with intrauterine growth retardation and a reduced head circumference. A brain sample from the infant showed traces of Zika virus. Since then, the sudden increase of microcephaly cases in Brazil, in conjunction with its out- break of Zika, has lead scientists to believe that the virus can damage the developing neurons of the fetus, which could lead

The Emergence of Zika Virus (ZiV): A Review

Zika virus (ZiV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus (family Flaviviridae); Vector: aedes (ae. Aegypti, ae. Albopictus) also causes dengue, chikungunya, yellow fever. Bit by female mosquitoes mostly in daylight hour, associated with a neurological birth complication called Microcephaly, is the rapid spread of this virus across the globe. Researchers found that ZiV targets specialized stem cells that give rise to the neurons in the brain's outer layer, the cortex. First identify in rhesus monkey of Zika forest Uganda in April 1947, during the research on the yellow fever, Rockefeller foundation initiative. WHO declared the Zika outbreak to a 'Public health emergency of international concern' on January 2016. There are also high occurrences of outbreaks of Guillain- Barre Syndrome (GBS) associated with ZiV infections. Other neurological cases linked to ZiV infection include meningoencephalitis or acute myelitis. In 2007, first large outbreak of disease caused by Zika infection was reported from the island of YAP (Federated States of Micronesia). In July 2015, Brazil described an association between Zika and Guillain-Barre disorder. In Oct 2015, Brazil described an association between Zika and Microcephaly. Sexual transmission of Zika is also possible, blood transfusion can cause Zika.

Vírus Zika: Revisão para Clínicos

Zika virus is a flavivirus related to Dengue virus, yellow fever virus and West Nile virus. It is considered an emerging arbovirus transmitted by mosquitos of the genus Aedes. Its first description took place in 1947 in the Zika Forest in Uganda, isolated on Rhesus monkey used as bait to study the yellow fever virus. Sporadic cases have been detected in African countries and at the end of the 70's in Indonesia. In 2007, epidemics were described in Micronesia and other islands in the Pacific Ocean and more recently in Brazil. Clinical picture is characterized as a 'dengue-like' syndrome, with abrupt onset of fever and an early onset evanescent rash, often pruritic. Occasionally the disease has been associated with Guillain-Barré syndrome. Nevertheless, until now deaths and complications caused by the disease were not reported. The diagnosis can be performed by PCR or by IgG and IgM antibodies detection. The rapid spread of the virus and its epidemic potential are especially problematic in countries where there are the circulation of other arboviruses which imposes difficulties in the differential diagnosis and healthcare burden. Control measures are the same recommended for dengue and chikungunya which are based in health education and vector control.

Material affects attack rates on dummy caterpillars in tropical forest where arthropod predators dominate: an experiment using clay and dough dummies with green colourants on various plant species

AbstractPredation can be one of the key factors that determine abundance in insect herbivore communities, and drive evolution of body size, and anti‐predator traits, including crypsis. Population dynamics and selection pressures will depend on the identity of dominant predators in the system, and these may vary substantially among habitats. Arthropods emerge as chief predators on caterpillars in the understorey of non‐montane tropical forest, whereas birds dominate elsewhere. In a tropical forest in Uganda, Africa, we evaluated marks on dummy caterpillars that differed in size, material (clay vs. dough), colourant, and plant species on which dummy caterpillars were exposed. We included live caterpillars to estimate the extent to which studies using artificial caterpillars reflect actual levels of predation. Ants and wasps were the most important damagers of dummy caterpillars, whereas bug and beetle damage was very rare, and no bird or small mammal damage was observed. Daily attack rates did not differ significantly from apparent mortality of live caterpillars (daily mortality = 12.1%), but dummy caterpillars made from dough were attacked more frequently (daily attack rate = 18.4%) than those from clay (daily attack rate = 6.9%). Caterpillars of different colour and size, and caterpillars exposed on different plant species had the same chances to be predated. This is in contrast to results from temperate area studies where birds dominate and are not affected by dummy caterpillar material, but prefer larger caterpillars. Our results are consistent with dominant predators on tropical forest caterpillars being invertebrates that are more chemically than visually oriented, so that: (1) material used for dummy caterpillars is important, (2) background matching is relatively unimportant, and (3) being large may have less of a cost. These patterns in predation might facilitate polyphagy and evolution of large body size in tropical Lepidoptera.

Phenology of Predation on Insects in a Tropical Forest: Temporal Variation in Attack Rate on Dummy Caterpillars

AbstractIn communities of tropical insects, adult abundance tends to fluctuate widely, perhaps in part owing to predator–prey dynamics. Yet, temporal patterns of attack rates in tropical forest habitats have not been studied systematically; the identity of predators of insects in tropical forests is poorly known; and their responses to temporal variation in prey abundance have rarely been explored. We recorded incidence and shape of marks of attacks on dummy caterpillars (proxy of predation rate) in a sub‐montane tropical forest in Uganda during a yearlong experiment, and explored correlations with inferred caterpillar abundance. Applying the highest and lowest observed daily attack rates on clay dummies over a realistic duration of the larval stage of butterflies, indicates that the temporal variation in attack rate could cause more than 10‐fold temporal variation in caterpillar survival. Inferred predators were almost exclusively invertebrates, and beak marks of birds were very scarce. Attack rates by wasps varied more over time than those of ants. Attack rates on dummies peaked during the two wet seasons, and appeared congruent with inferred peaks in caterpillar density. This suggests (1) a functional response (predators shifting to more abundant resource) or adaptive timed phenology (predators timing activity or breeding to coincide with seasonal peaks in prey abundance) of predators, rather than a numerical response (predator populations increasing following peaks in prey abundance); and (2) that predation would dampen abundance fluctuations of tropical Lepidoptera communities.

Fuelwood collection and its impacts on a protected tropical mountain forest in Uganda

Local communities who live close to protected tropical forests often depend on them for woodfuel, their main source of energy. The impacts of fuelwood extraction in humid forests are rarely studied, yet the extraction of wood for fuel can impact forest structure, function and biodiversity. We assessed the effects of fuelwood collection on the forest of Mt Elgon National Park (Uganda). We interviewed 192 households about fuelwood use and surveyed dead wood in 81 plots inside the park. Forest was the most important source of fuelwood. People collected on average between 1.1 and 2.0m3 of fuelwood per capita per year. Other activities involving wood fuel extraction from the forest included illegal commercial fuelwood harvesting and charcoal making. Quantities of dead wood were affected by fuelwood collection up to at least 1000m inside the boundary of the park. Depletion of dead wood inside the park was greater in the sites where the population was most dense. Nevertheless, people who planted more trees on their own land perceived land outside the park to be important and valued old growth forest less as a source of fuelwood. Highly-preferred tree species were most depleted, particularly when they were also valued timber trees, such as Prunus africana, Popocarpus milianjianus, Allophylus abyssinicus and Olea spp. Locally dominant species were less affected. Impacts varied among sites depending on the history of agricultural encroachment and locally-specific forest uses, e.g. harvesting of trees for poles or use of the forest land for grazing. Allowing the collection of dead wood in forests is double-edged as it creates opportunities for other activities that are more damaging. Demand for wood fuel from tropical forests is still likely to grow in the foreseeable future. Our results indicate that the forest may become more degraded as a result, with negative consequences for the people who depend on the forest and for conservation. Research into local ecological and cultural contexts and perceptions concerning costs and benefits can help devise more sustainable management options, including alternative sources of fuel.

Dwindling forests are hollowed out

Roughly a third of the 16 forest reserves in Kibaale district have been seriously damaged and occupied by squatters. About half of those are 50% occupied, says Charles Arian, a manager for Kibaale district at the National Forestry Authority (NFA). Uganda's forest cover fell from 24% in 1990 to 10% in 2009, and it's still falling. Every year the country loses around 88,000 hectares of forest, according to the NFA. If forest loss continues at this rate, there will be none left in a few decades. Commercial logging is largely licensed, but illegal logging by people settling in the forests often takes the authorities by surprise.

Two new species in the genus Geritola Libert, 1999 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae, Epitolini).

Two Geritola (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) species, closely related to the Central African G. nitidica, have been recognised as new to science. G. wardi sp. n. was captured in small series in Mabira, an eastern outlier forest in Uganda, while G. pacifica sp. n. was discovered in Liberia, in classic Upper-Guinean hyper-wet rainforests. Both of them are described in comparison to their allopatric relative G. nitidica, including male genitalia.

A phylogeny of Central African Boaedon (Serpentes: Lamprophiidae), with the description of a new cryptic species from the Albertine Rift

The Central African house snake Boaedon olivaceus has a large distribution from the forests of West Africa to Mabira Forest in Uganda. We sequenced two mitochondrial (cyt b and ND4) and two nuclear (c-mos and RAG1) genes from several populations of B. olivaceus in Central Africa and recovered two highly divergent lineages (Congo Basin and Albertine Rift) attributable to this species. Dating analyses with BEAST suggest the two lineages last shared a common ancestor during the mid-Miocene approximately 12 million years ago, and data from RAG1 showed consistent differences in two amino acids for topotypic Congo Basin B. olivaceus compared to the Albertine Rift lineage and all other examined species of Boaedon. Based on these striking molecular differences and significant differences in ventral scale counts and the number of supralabials contacting the eye, we describe the Albertine Rift lineage as a new species. The recognition of this new species bolsters the importance of the Albertine Rift as an important region for endemism and conservation in continental Africa. Based on the results of our phylogenetic analyses, the poorly known taxon Lycodonomorphus subtaeniatus upembae is elevated to full species status and transferred to the genus Boaedon. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D0C0E5B5-DBE9-4D21-B5FE-86221DDF60BA

Zika Virus: An Overview

Zika virus a member of Flaviviridae family was an obscure virus till recently when it has suddenly become a global public health emergency. The virus is closely related to Spondweni virus and is transmitted through Aedes aegypti mosquito. It was isolated for the first time in Zika forest in Uganda in 1947 from rhesus monkeys. Zika virus infection is mostly asymptomatic and did not attract much attention till 2015, but now it appears that Zika virus may be causing microcephaly and other CNS disorders in babies in Brazil and other countries and WHO has deemed it a “Public health emergency of international concern”. Real time reverse transcriptase PCR remains the mainstay of diagnosis. Currently no treatment or vaccine is available for the virus. Prevention of mosquito bites remains the only alternative to prevent Zika virus infection.

Diet and Phylogeny in Primate Communities

Phylogeny is associated with most aspects of the biology of primates and other animals, such as body form, locomotion, gross diet, and social behavior. Closely related organisms tend to be similar to one another. In this article we examine the extent to which the dietary overlap of individual primate species within a community reflects their phylogenetic relationships. That is, do closely related taxa of primates tend to eat parts of the same species and genera of plants? We collected dietary data and phylogenetic relationships from studies of primate communities at five sites: the Krau Game Reserve in Malaysia, Manu National Park in Peru, Raleighvalen-Voltsberg in Suriname, Kibale Forest in Uganda, and Tai Forest in Ivory Coast. On the basis of a Mantel test, matrices of dietary overlap and phylogenetic divergence dates show significant correlations (P < 0.05) between diet and divergence times in all communities except Manu. However, tests that compare branching sequences between cladograms of phylogeny and dendrograms of dietary similarity yield few clear results. The widespread correlations between consumption of specific plant taxa and phylogenetic relatedness in studies on different continents using various methods of data collection are a robust result and contrast with other studies finding a weak relationship between diet and phylogeny when diet is measured as proportions of fruit, leaves, and fauna. Further investigations of the relationship between diet and phylogeny could profit by careful design of uniform sampling strategies and consideration of additional factors such as seasonality and food availability.

How does conversion of natural tropical rainforest ecosystems affect soil bacterial and fungal communities in the Nile river watershed of Uganda?

Uganda's forests are globally important for their conservation values but are under pressure from increasing human population and consumption. In this study, we examine how conversion of natural forest affects soil bacterial and fungal communities. Comparisons in paired natural forest and human-converted sites among four locations indicated that natural forest soils consistently had higher pH, organic carbon, nitrogen, and calcium, although variation among sites was large. Despite these differences, no effect on the diversity of dominant taxa for either bacterial or fungal communities was detected, using polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE). Composition of fungal communities did generally appear different in converted sites, but surprisingly, we did not observe a consistent pattern among sites. The spatial distribution of some taxa and community composition was associated with soil pH, organic carbon, phosphorus and sodium, suggesting that changes in soil communities were nuanced and require more robust metagenomic methods to understand the various components of the community. Given the close geographic proximity of the paired sampling sites, the similarity between natural and converted sites might be due to continued dispersal between treatments. Fungal communities showed greater environmental differentiation than bacterial communities, particularly according to soil pH. We detected biotic homogenization in converted ecosystems and substantial contribution of β-diversity to total diversity, indicating considerable geographic structure in soil biota in these forest communities. Overall, our results suggest that soil microbial communities are relatively resilient to forest conversion and despite a substantial and consistent change in the soil environment, the effects of conversion differed widely among sites. The substantial difference in soil chemistry, with generally lower nutrient quantity in converted sites, does bring into question, how long this resilience will last.

Do commercial forest plantations reduce pressure on natural forests? Evidence from forest policy reforms in Uganda

This paper investigates if and how the establishment of private commercial forest plantations in degraded forest reserves can conserve natural forests in Uganda. It uses difference-in-difference and decomposition analyses on household data collected from intervention and control villages in the neighborhood of forest reserves. We find that commercial forest plantations are weakly effective in conserving natural forests. The reduction in forest use is unevenly distributed across households depending on location and resource endowments such as farmland and livestock. The results suggest that the conservation effectiveness can be enhanced by complementary interventions that change characteristics that reduce forest use, such as more education for forest users.

Structural Changes are More Important than Compositional Changes in Driving Biomass Loss in Ugandan Forest Fragments

Aboveground biomass (AGB) contained in privately-owned forests is less frequently measured than in forest reserves despite their greater likelihood of degradation. We demonstrate how density changes in contrast to species compositional changes have driven AGB changes in privately-owned fragments in Uganda over two decades. Data on tree assemblages in fragments were obtained by re-sampling a 1990 dataset in 2010 and AGB estimated using generalised allometric equation that incorporates diameter at breast height (DBH) and species-specific wood density. AGB were highly variable between fragments and over time. Structural changes contributed a higher proportion of change in AGB than species compositional changes in all forests. Non-pioneer species constituted over 50% of AGB in reserve forest, in contrast to private forests where pioneer species dominated. Our study demonstrates the potential of private forests to hold comparable AGB to plantation. Reduction in exploitation pressure is required if fragments are to mitigate carbon emissions.