Forest Function Research Articles

Diversity effects and compensatory dynamics drive productivity and stability in temperate old‐growth forests

Abstract Understanding mechanisms stabilizing ecosystem functions, such as primary production, is crucial for forecasting global environmental responses. While biological diversity is expected to enhance stability through compensatory reactions to environmental changes, empirical evidence is lacking, especially in old‐growth forests vital for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. Moreover, whether increased niche complementarity and stronger intraspecific than interspecific competition are key mechanisms promoting compensatory dynamics and stabilizing ecosystem functions in diverse forests remains unexplored. This study investigates productivity and stability in temperate old‐growth forests over 20 years at community and individual levels. Analysing 4380 trees in a 4‐ha plot in northern Japan with over 35 tree species, structural equation models evaluated the effects of biodiversity and average asynchrony in species fluctuations (compensatory dynamics) on productivity stability across 100 m2 grid quadrats. Functional traits and taxonomic diversity represented species complementarity and the insurance effect. Temporal growth correlations between conspecific and heterospecific neighbours and neighbourhood effects on growth performance indicated intra‐ and interspecific interactions at the individual level. Communities with greater stability exhibited higher diversity and asynchronous species fluctuations, suggesting that compensatory dynamics buffer community productivity against environmental variability. The inverse relationship between tree size variation and stability indicates that communities with less pronounced size and abundance hierarchies have more efficient compensatory mechanisms, ensuring stable forest functioning. The absence of negative temporal correlations in biomass production among heterospecific neighbours suggests the limited significance of interspecific competition in compensatory dynamics. Conversely, positive correlations among conspecific neighbours and their suppressed growth in dense conspecific patches highlight the importance of conspecific negative density‐dependent mechanisms in sustaining tree species diversity and ensuring stable productivity. Synthesis: The study underscores the critical role of tree species richness in stabilizing ecosystem functioning via asynchronous growth in one of the world's most diverse temperate forests. Stronger intraspecific than interspecific competition helps prevent single‐species dominance, maintaining diversity and productivity stability. Despite occasional destabilization from size‐asymmetric interspecific competition, species‐trait complementarity enhances stability by promoting overall biomass production. This study highlights the importance of overall diversity for the stability of forest productivity, with implications for nature conservation and ecosystem functionality.

Determinants of tree population temporal stability in a temperate mixed forest over a gradient of nitrogen addition

Nitrogen (N) deposition is a significant threat to the functioning of forests and negatively impacts the delivery of forest goods and services. Contemporary management approaches seek to adapt forests to such N-deposition stressors, but to date how plant populations in natural forests respond to N deposition and what factors determine the contrasting responses among populations are still unclear. Here, we investigated the impact of N-addition (control: 0 kg ha−1 yr−1; low: 25 kg ha−1 yr−1; medium: 50 kg ha−1 yr−1; high: 75 kg ha−1 ha yr−1) on tree population temporal stability and how initial tree size, mycorrhizal type, and leaf N content (LNC; as a surrogate for functional trait composition) mediate tree population responses to N-addition in a Korean pine and mixed broadleaved dominated temperate forest in northern China. We quantified tree species population temporal stability as the ratio of mean to standard deviation of the year-by-year stem increments recorded in individual trees from 2015 to 2022 experimental period. The results showed different temporal stabilities of tree species among four N-addition levels, with the highest population stability observed within the high N-addition plots. Furthermore, initial tree size had significantly (p < 0.001) positive effects on population temporal stability. The effect of LNC and initial tree size were also contingent on the level of N applied. Specifically, increase in tree population LNC reduced population temporal stability in all plots where N was added. Our results imply that retention of large-sized trees and species with resource-conservative strategies (e.g., low LNC) could enhance forest stability under N deposition.

Is It Possible to Predict a Forest Insect Outbreak? Backtesting Using Remote Sensing Data

In this study, methods are proposed for analyzing the susceptibility of forest stands to attacks by forest insects on the basis of Earth remote sensing data. As an indicator of the state of forest stands, we proposed to use a parameter of the sensitivity of a vegetation index (normalized difference vegetation index; NDVI) during a vegetative period to changes in the radiative temperature of the territory (land surface temperature; LST) determined from satellite data of the Terra/Aqua system. The indicator was calculated as a spectrum of a response function in an integral equation linking changes of NDVI to those of LST. Backtesting was carried out using data from two outbreaks of the Siberian silk moth Dendrolimus sibiricus Tschetv. and outbreaks of the white mottled sawyer Monochamus urussovi Fischer and of the four-eyed fir bark beetle Polygraphus proximus Blandford in taiga forests of Krasnoyarsk Territory in Russia. In addition, the state of fir stands in the year 2023 was examined when damage to the forest stands was not yet noticeable, but Siberian silk moth adults were found in pheromone traps. It was shown that the proposed indicator of susceptibility of forest stands changed significantly 2–3 years before the pest outbreak in outbreak foci of the studied areas. Thus, the proposed indicator can be used to predict outbreaks of insect pests. The proposed approach differs from commonly used remote sensing methods in that, rather than using absolute values of remote indicators (such as, for example, NDVI), it focuses on indicators of the susceptibility of these remote indicators to the characteristics of the natural environment. Since any given point on the planet is characterized by a seasonally varying temperature, it is always possible to determine the sensitivity of a remote sensing indicator to changes in the environment that are not directly related to the absolute value of the indicator. Future studies are expected to examine susceptibility indices as a function of forest stand location and species, and to examine the length of spatial correlation of susceptibility indices, which may provide information on the possible extent of future insect outbreaks.

Sap Flow Analyzer: A tool to standardize sap flow estimation and scaling to whole‐tree water use using the HFD method

Abstract Sap flow measurements are fundamental to understanding water use in trees and could aid in predicting climate change effects on forest function. Deriving knowledge from such measurements requires empirical calibrations and upscaling methods to translate thermometric recordings to tree water use. Here, we developed a user‐friendly open‐source application, the Sap Flow Analyzer (SFA), which estimates sap flow rates and tree water use from the heat field deformation (HFD) instruments. The SFA incorporates four key features to ensure maximum accuracy and reproducibility of sap flow estimates: diagnosis diagrams to assess data patterns visually, regression models implemented to increase accuracy when estimating K (the main HFD parameter), three approaches to upscale sap flow rates to whole‐tree water use and visualization of the input parameters' uncertainty. Thirteen participants were given three raw datasets and assigned data processing tasks using the SFA user guide, from estimating sapwood depth to scaling sap flow rates to whole‐tree water use to assess the reproducibility and applicability of the SFA. Participants' results were reasonably consistent and independent of their background in using the SFA, R, or HFD method. The results showed lower variability for high flow rates (SD: mean 1% vs. 10%). K estimates and sapwood depth differentiation were the primary sources of variability, which in turn was mainly caused by the user's chosen scaling method. The SFA provides an easy way to visualize and process sap flow and tree water use data from HFD measurements. It is the first free and open software tool for HFD users. The ability to trace analysis steps ensures reproducibility, increasing transparency and consistency in data processing. Developing tools such as the SFA and masked trials are essential for more precise workflows and improved quality and comparability of HFD sap flow datasets.

Using eddy covariance observations to determine the carbon sequestration characteristics of subalpine forests in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

Abstract. Subalpine forests are a crucial component of the carbon cycling system in the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau (QTP). However, there are currently significant data gaps in the QTP, and it is essential to enhance continuous monitoring of forest carbon absorption processes in the future. This study investigates 2 years' carbon exchange dynamics of a subalpine forest on the QTP using an eddy covariance method. We first characterized the seasonal carbon dynamics of the subalpine forest, revealing the higher carbon dioxide (CO2) exchange rates in summer and autumn and lower rates in winter and spring, and found that autumn is the peak period for carbon sequestration in this subalpine forest, with the maximum measured value of CO2 absorption reaching 10.70 µmol m−2 s−1. Subsequently, we examined the environmental factors influencing the carbon sequestration function. Principal component analysis (PCA) shows that photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) was the major environmental factor driving the net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO2, significantly influencing forest carbon absorption, and the increase in relative humidity decreases the rate of carbon fixation. In addition, we explored NEE and its influencing factors at the regional scale and found that air temperature promotes carbon dioxide absorption (negative NEE values), while the average annual precipitation shows a minor effect on NEE. At the annual scale, the subalpine forest functions as a strong carbon sink, with an average NEE of −332 to −351 g C m−2 (from November 2020 to October 2022). Despite the challenges of climate change, forests remain robust carbon sinks with the highest carbon sequestration capacity in the QTP, with an average annual CO2 absorption rate of 368 g C m−2. This study provides valuable insights into the carbon cycling mechanism in subalpine ecosystems and the global carbon balance.

Effect of simulated extreme rainfall on the vegetative phenology of perennial and annual herbaceous plants from a Brazilian dry forest.

Detecting changes in the phenological responses of herbaceous species as a function of predicted climate change is important for forecasting future scenarios for the functioning of dry tropical forests, especially when predicting an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme droughts. Because of the sensitivity of plants to water availability, our study hypothesizes that if years become drier or wetter, herbaceous plants will synchronously change the onset, duration, and intensity of their vegetative phenophases. We used a historical series of 60 years of precipitation observations for the Caatinga vegetation to define daily average of precipitation for rainy (Twet), median (Tcontrol), and dry (Tdry) years. We simulated past average daily rainfall (Twet, Tcontrol, and Tdry) while growing two herbaceous perennials and two herbaceous annuals. We monitored plant growth and measured the activity (absence or presence) and intensity of vegetative phenophases. We used circular statistical analysis to assess differences between treatments. Our results revealed that leaf production was seasonal but relatively uniform for perennial species and highly seasonal (wet season) for annual species. Simulated dry years induced lower leaf emergence concentrated over a few months in annual species, but this effect was more strongly significant in one of the two perennial species. Both annual and perennial species can experience delayed and less intense leaf abscission during the rainy season in years with below-average precipitation. In contrast, large voluminous rains in years with above-average precipitation can accelerate and intensify the process of leaf renewal. If future precipitation reductions occur, the changes in phenological response indicate that the cover of annual and perennial herbaceous species in this study will likely decrease, altering the landscape and functioning of dry tropical forests. However, the potential trade-offs observed may help populations of these species to persist during years of severe drought in the Caatinga.

Allometric equation of Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) and Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. for estimating carbon stocks

Coal mining can increase land degradation and deforestation, so efforts are needed to ensure land use in post-mining areas. Therefore, mining companies must carry out land reclamation to restore the important function of forests by planting sengon laut (Paraserianthes falcataria (L.)) and burflower tree (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.). In contrast to mining, which produces emissions and carbon that contribute to global warming, land reclamation helps absorb carbon and produce oxygen for living things. Therefore, a study was carried out to estimate the carbon stocks from reclamation activities at PT. Indobara Borneo. A quantitative approach through Stratified Random Sampling was applied in this study. Carbon estimation is carried out using allometric equations. The allometric equation of Paraserianthes falcataria (L.) is Y = 0.028D2,695, while the allometric equation of Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is Y = 0.035D2,600. The total carbon stocks for burflower tree plants are 84.51 tons/ha with a CO2 sink potential of 974.73 tons/Ha, while the total carbon stocks for sengon laut plants are 86.18 tons/ha with a CO2 sink potential of 1355.49 tons/ha. The value of CO₂ sink and carbon stock indicates that there are environmental services to restore and improve vegetation.

Invasive neophytes alter ecological functions and services of riparian hardwood forests

Riparian hardwood forests, now rare in Europe, occur in small patches within agricultural landscapes and are important biodiversity hotspots protected by the EU Habitats Directive and monitored. They play a vital ecological role and provide essential ecosystem services (ES). Recent studies indicate their unfavourable conservation status with a negative trend reported by EU Member States. One of the most visible symptoms of the degradation of riparian hardwood forest is the invasion of alien plant species which can radically change ecosystem functions. In this work, we use plant functional trait analysis to develop proxies and quantify an impact of invasive alien species, specifically invasive neophytes, on specific functions of riparian hardwood forests and their potential to provide five relevant regulating services. Data from 249 phytosociological relevés across 83 Natura 2000 habitat monitoring sites in Poland were analyzed.Our findings indicate that invasive neophytes negatively affect the potential for maintaining nursery populations and habitats, as well as regulation of the chemical condition of freshwaters by these forests. On the other hand, they do not significantly influence the local climate conditions and the forests’ potential to produce antimicrobial compounds. We recommend integrating an ES assessment based on plant functional traits into habitat monitoring. This approach is cost-effective, leveraging existing data, and its results could be used in some cases as a premise for initiating additional environmental monitoring based on direct field measurements.

Effect of climate change on current and future potential distribution of Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) in Türkiye

The demand for nontimber forest products (NTFPs) has increased significantly in recent years. Hundreds of plant species that grow naturally in Türkiye have medicinal and aromatic value. Medicinal and aromatic plants are primarily used as a sources of tea, spices, condiments and essential oils. Species belonging to the genus Arbutus L. are used for decorative purposes and as fuel wood in many wood-based industries, they also have a wide range of uses in packaging, chairs making and furniture production. Additionally, the fruits of these trees are widely consumed by humans and animals because they are rich in sugar and vitamin C. It is predicted that changes in climatic conditions will significantly change the distribution, composition and function of forests threatening biodiversity. The purpose of this study was to model current and future potential geographical distributions of Arbutus unedo L., which is among the species that naturally grow in Türkiye and is of substantial value in terms of its ecological contribution to forest ecosystems, based on species presence data and environmental variables (bioclimatic variables and altitude). The current and future distribution area models for Arbutus unedo L. indicate that the potential distribution areas of the species in the coming years will gradually decrease, and in the SSP5 8.5 model, which represents the highest level of world resource usage this gradual decrease will reach its highest level and there will be no suitable distribution area left for the species. Therefore, it is predicted that the species will become endangered. In-situ and ex-situ conservation measures need to be taken to ensure the sustainability of the species in forestry and landscape areas.

The Carbon Stocks Estimation on Tangga Community Forests of Lombok Utara

Forests are one of the largest carbon dioxide absorbers, the forest's function as a carbon dioxide absorber causes an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is stored in forest biomass. Forest development to increase carbon dioxide absorption can be carried out in state forest areas or private forests, which also include community forests. This research aims to estimate carbon stocks in the Tangga community forest (HKm) , in the Tangga HKm, Lombok utara, NTB. This research uses quantitative methods. The data collected is standing vegetation data. Standing vegetation data includes saplings, poles and trees by measuring diameter and height using purposive sampling collection techniques. Carbon stocks are estimated using the allometric equation formula. The total carbon reserves in the HKm Tangga obtained from each stand were 9.972,11 ton/ha. The highest carbon stock value is at the tree level with a value of 8.785,08 tons/ha, followed by the sapling level at 731,34 ton/ha, and the pole level at 455,69 tons/ha with the highest amount at the candlenut tree level (Aleurites moluccana) at 2.200,63 ton/ha and the lowest was the breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis) with a value of 1,96 ton/ha.

Exploring the prognostic implications of cuproptosis-associated alterations in clear cell renal cell carcinoma via in vitro experiments

This study investigated the impact of novel copper ionophores on the prognosis of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) and the tumor microenvironment (TME). The differential expression of 10 cuproptosis and 40 TME-pathway-related genes were measured in 531 tumor samples and 71 adjacent kidney samples in The Cancer Genome Atlas database. A risk score model was constructed with LASSO cox to predict the prognosis of ccRCC patients. Forest plot and function enrichment were used to study the biological function of the key genes in depth. The study found that the risk score model accurately predicted the prognosis of ccRCC patients. Patients with high scores had higher immune responses with a higher proportion of anti-tumor lymphocytes and a lower proportion of immunosuppressive M2-like macrophages. However, the high-score group also exhibited a higher proportion of T follicular helper cells and regulatory T cells. These results suggest that cuproptosis-based therapy may be worth further investigation for the treatment of ccRCC and TME. Subsequently, by using RNAi, we established the stable depletion models of FDX1 and PDHB in ccRCC cell lines 786-O and ACHN. Through CCK8, colony formation, and Transwell assays, we observed that the knockdown of FDX1 and PDHB could significantly reduce the capabilities of proliferation and migration in ccRCC cells. In conclusion, this study illuminates the potential effectiveness of copper ionophores in the treatment of ccRCC, with higher risk scores correlating with better TME immune responses. It sets the stage for future cuproptosis-based therapy research in ccRCC and other cancers, focusing on copper’s role in TME.

A trait-based approach to quantify ecosystem services delivery potentials in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh

An ecosystem’s potential to deliver goods and services, primarily determined by the functional traits of the species, is crucial for assessing its health and conservation value. This study uses a trait-based approach to evaluate the spatial and temporal variation in the ecosystem services delivery potentials (ESDPs) of the Sundarbans mangrove. We analyzed abundance data from 81 permanent sample plots (PSPs), spread over different saline zones, collected between 1986 and 2014, paired with species-specific plant functional traits. Seventeen traits were examined, with species-level data sourced from secondary literature, linking traits to ecosystem services. Study revealed that plant height, specific leaf area, and root length are key traits for assessing ESDPs. The Sundarbans’ ESDPs varied spatially across different saline zones but remained stable over time. Notably, ESDPs were significantly higher in low saline zones compared to ESDPs in high saline zones. This spatial variation is partly explained by differences in plant species composition among saline zones and the relatively stable species composition over time. Results from mixed effect models showed that PSP as a random factor for all four models is attributed to the nested effect. The study highlights the value of functional traits in ecosystem service assessments, providing a robust method to predict how changes in biodiversity and environmental conditions affect service delivery. The observed trend of decreasing ESDPs with increasing salinity offers insights into the potential impacts of sea-level rise on mangrove forest functions. These findings are essential for developing conservation strategies and policies to preserve the Sundarbans’ ecological integrity and support local livelihoods. This research advocates for a trait-based framework as a critical tool for the sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems globally.

Estimating the dynamics of ecosystem functions under climate change in a temperate forest region

Understanding the dynamics and spatial patterns of forest biodiversity and functioning is vital for effective conservation and management. This study introduces a new framework for estimating the spatio-temporal dynamics of biodiversity and ecosystem functions in northeastern China. Our novel approach evaluates 96 future scenarios, including four points in time, four socio-economic pathways, and six global climate models based on an extensive network of permanent field plots with specific bioclimatic, topographic, and soil data. Our findings indicate a future trend of diminishing biodiversity and forest biomass productivity and increasing biomass density and carbon storage. The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functionality indicates a non-linear response to changes in temperature and precipitation, and a stable correlation between biodiversity and ecosystem stability across most of the socio-economic pathways. Unravelling the complex relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and stability of production, in the face of global change, requires new methods of analysis that were used in this study, including machine learning and other advanced methods.

Anthropogenic forests simplify seed- but not pollen-dispersal networks.

Natural native forests are rapidly being replaced by anthropogenic forests often with a strong presence of invasive alien plant species. Eucalypt species are widely planted worldwide, with Eucalyptus globulus plantations being particularly expressive in Portugal. Poor forestry practices often lead to the associated expansion of invasive species, such as Acacia dealbata. However, we still know relatively little about the functioning of anthropogenic forests, such as seed and pollen dispersal services. Here, we compared bird abundance and richness and the seed and pollen dispersal networks in both forest types. Anthropogenic forests presented lower bird abundance, and smaller, more simplified, and more random (abundance-based) seed dispersal services than those of natural forests. Interestingly, the pollen dispersal network was more similar than the seed dispersal network for both forest types and dominated by opportunistic and neutral processes, given the absence of specialized nectarivorous. The proportion of birds transporting seeds decreased, while those carrying pollen significantly increased in the anthropogenic forest compared to the native forest. Our work highlights the impact of anthropogenic forests on bird abundance, with consequences for seed dispersal services and forest regeneration.

Impact of Management Measures on Multiple Ecosystem Function Trade-Offs and Their Dynamics in Subtropic Pinus massoniana Plantations

With the changing demands imposed on forests by human beings, optimizing forest management to fully utilize their multifunctionality has become a priority. Reasonable forest management measures can maintain stable forest ecosystems that fully coordinate the balance between ecological, societal, and economic aspects. As planted forests are the main application scenario of forest management worldwide, it is of great importance to understand the trade-offs between ecosystem functions and their dynamic changes in planted forests. This paper investigates the effects of different management measures on the ecosystem function of Pinus massoniana plantation forests in the subtropics. It examines four different management measures and explores how they impact multiple ecosystem function indexes and the trade-offs between ecosystem functions during forest restoration. The different management measures effectively promoted the studied ecosystem functions, with higher annual growth rates of the integrated functional indices for timber production, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity compared to the control. Over time, the ecosystem function interactions under the different management measures alternated between trade-offs and synergistic. Only the stand with a 65% harvesting intensity and replanting of various native broadleaf species was able to sustain the synergistic relationships among ecosystem functions, and the dominant function trended toward biodiversity. These observations of dynamic changes and interactions in ecosystem functions of Pinus massoniana plantation forests under various management measures will serve as a valuable reference for the sustainable management of these forests in subtropical regions.

Forest Stewards Guild position on climate-smart forestry

Climate-smart forestry is an increasingly important topic in forest policy and for practices. However, what does and does not constitute climate-smart forestry is subject of debate. At stake are billions of dollars of investment aimed at encouraging climate-smart forestry practices in the United States. As a leading voice for ecologically, economically, and socially responsible forestry, The Forest Stewards Guild (FSG) has produced a position statement based on the organization's vision, mission, and principles to guide conversations around climate-smart forestry for all interested stakeholders. This forest perspective presents and expands on the findings of the FSG position on climate-smart forestry. There are three common aspects in the multiple co-existing definitions of climate-smart forestry: 1) adapting forests to expected future climate conditions, 2) mitigating climate change by leveraging carbon sequestration and storage functions of forests, and 3) improving social outcomes. There are potential trade-offs with other benefits forests provide if climate-smart forestry is pursued without holistic consideration of forest ecosystems. We suggest that such trade-offs can be minimized if the goals of climate-smart forestry projects are communicated transparently, system boundaries are made as comprehensive as possible, potential trade-offs are assessed along with climate benefits, climate-smart practices are tailored to the social-ecological contexts, and uncertainty is recognized.

Carbon storage-driven multi-objective spatial planning: simulation and practice at the management unit level in Northeast China

In recent years, global attention to forest ecological environment, carbon, wood yield, and biodiversity has been increasing, which requires forest managers to make reasonable forest planning in time and space to meet the needs of multi-objectives and multi-resources. In this study, the resources of business units in Northeast China were analyzed, and the FPS-ATLAS model was established. A multi-objective decision supporting spatial forest planning scheme for 16629.53 ha of forest in Jingouling forest farm of Wangqing Forestry Bureau in Jilin Province was proposed. In this paper, the volume growth model of six forest types was established, and the carbon storage model was introduced to show the total carbon, biomass carbon, dissolved organic carbon, and total soil carbon of the ecosystem. The dynamic change in carbon during the whole planning period has achieved good results. After 20 time periods, the total soil carbon increased to 7,627,208 Mg (+6.63%), the total ecosystem carbon increased to 14,889,876 Mg (+27.51%), the biomass carbon increased to 5,362,779 Mg (+59.70%), and the dissolved organic carbon increased to 9,531,906 Mg (+14.59%). The purpose of this article is to achieve dynamic management of forest resources, meet multiple constraint settings, achieve multiple management objectives, harvest wood products, and ensure the ecological and social functions of forests so that forests ultimately achieve the ideal state of sustainability.

Influence of Mining on Nutrient Cycling in the Tropical Rain Forests of the Colombian Pacific

Nutrient recycling is a fundamental process for the functioning of tropical forests; however, anthropogenic activities such as mining could affect this process in tropical ecosystems. Given that little is known about the effects of mining on nutrient recycling in tropical forests, the objective was set to evaluate the influence of mining on nutrient cycling in tropical rainforests of the Colombian Pacific. Additionally, the hypothesis that nutrient cycling could be lower in post-mining areas was evaluated. To evaluate the effect of mining on nutrient cycling, permanent plots were established in mature and post-mining forests. In both forests, soil acidity, aluminum (Al), organic matter (OM), total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) were considered. Likewise, the litter production, decomposition, and accumulation on the ground were determined; additionally, nutrient content and nutrient use efficiency (NUE) were determined. It was observed that mining influenced the nutrient contents of the soil in a different way. It was evident that total N and soil OM were similar in both forests, while the contents of P, K, Ca, Mg, Al, and ECEC available were higher in post-mining. The litterfall production and litter mass accumulation on the ground were greater in post-mining, while litter decomposition was greater in mature forests. In mature forests, there was higher foliar content of N, Ca, and B and, in addition, higher NUE of Ca. However, in post-mining, there was higher leaf content of K, Mg, P, Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn and, in addition, greater NUE of N, P and K. In conclusion, an increase in post-mining nutrient cycling was noted as a strategy for nutrient conservation, and recovery of the functioning and maintenance of productivity in degraded Pacific ecosystems. Consequently, it is expected that in the future, if mining continues in the region, productivity and nutrient recycling will be altered.

Whether the Natural Forest Logging Ban Promotes the Improvement and Realization of the Ecosystem Service Value in Northeast China: A Regression Discontinuity Design

To protect forest land from loss and mitigate the global climate crisis, China has proposed a stringent natural forest protection plan, known as China’s natural forest logging ban (NFLB). This policy aims to halt the over-exploitation of natural forests, restore forest ecosystem functions, and promote regional green economic development. This study uses a regression discontinuity design (RDD) model to quantitatively and comprehensively assess the effectiveness of this policy in the key state-owned forest regions in Northeast China. Additionally, it analyzes the heterogeneity and structural characteristics of the policy’s effects on the internal composition of ecological and economic systems. The empirical results are as follows: (1) Ecological and economic impacts: The policy has successfully achieved its ecological objectives by significantly enhancing the quality and value of ecosystem services. However, it has also had a notable adverse impact on economic development, particularly in the timber supply sector, reducing the conversion efficiency of ecosystem service values into economic benefits. (2) Structural analysis: The logging ban effectively promoted the value of various ecosystem services, particularly enhancing regulatory and support functions, with a LATE estimate of approximately 8.47 units. The implementation of the policy caused a negative growth in the output value of supply-oriented ecological products, and the significance level was lower than 0.1. Conversely, the LATE estimates for different types of GDP indicate a negative growth in supply-type GDP due to the policy, with p &lt; 0.1. (3) Heterogeneity: On the one hand, a simplistic and singular approach to logging prohibition may constrain the efficiency of enhancing ecosystem service values. On the other hand, although the policy disrupted the majority of traditional forest enterprise operations, business models focusing on quality and technology improvements were able to mitigate this impact.

Comparing airborne and terrestrial LiDAR with ground-based inventory metrics of vegetation structural complexity in oil palm agroforests

Vegetation structural complexity is an important component of forest ecosystems, influencing biodiversity and functioning. Due to the heterogeneous distribution of vegetation elements, structural complexity underpins ecological dynamics, species composition, microclimate, and habitat diversity. Field measurements and Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data, such as airborne (ALS) and terrestrial (TLS), can assess structural characteristics of forest and agroforestry systems at various spatial scales. This assessment is urgently needed for monitoring ecosystem restoration in degraded lands (e.g., in oil palm landscapes), where it is not well-known how structural measures derived from these different approaches relate to each other. Here, we compared the degree of correlation between individual and multivariate datasets of vegetation structural complexity metrics derived from ALS, TLS, and ground-based inventory approaches. The study was conducted in a 140 ha oil palm monoculture, enriched with 52 plots in the form of tree islands representing agroforestry systems of varying sizes and planted diversity levels in Sumatra, Indonesia. Our datasets comprised 25 ALS, five TLS, and nine ground-based inventory metrics. We studied correlations among metrics related to traditional stand summary, heterogeneity, and vertical and horizontal stand structure. We used principal component analysis for data dimensionality reduction, correlation analysis to quantify the strength of relationships between metrics, and Procrustes analysis to investigate the agreement between datasets. Significant correlations were found between ALS and TLS metrics for canopy density (r = 0.79) and maximum tree height (r = 0.58) and between ALS and ground-based inventory measures of stand heterogeneity and height diversity (r between 0.60 and −0.63). Further, we observed significant agreements between the ordinations of multivariate datasets (r = 0.56 for ALS − TLS; and r = 0.46 for ALS – ground-based inventory). Our findings underline the ability of ALS to capture structural complexity patterns, especially for canopy gap dynamics and vegetation height metrics, as captured by TLS, and for measures of heterogeneity and vertical structure as captured by ground-based inventories. Our study highlights the strength of each approach and underscores the potential of integrating ALS and TLS with ground-based inventories for a comprehensive characterization of vegetation structure in complex agroforestry systems, which can provide guidance for their management and support ecosystem restoration monitoring efforts.