Forest Conservation Programs Research Articles

REDD+, hype, hope and disappointment: The dynamics of expectations in conservation and development pilot projects

Abstract We explore the dynamics of expectations in international forest conservation and development programs, and the impacts and implications of (unfulfilled) expectations for actors involved. Early stages of new international conservation and development programs, often involving pilot projects designed to test intervention concepts at village level, are characterized by large amounts of resources and attention, along with high expectations of success. However, evidence shows that these early expectations are rarely fulfilled. Despite this repeated pattern and growing engagement with expectations in critical conservation and development literature, little is known about the dynamics of expectations in conservation and development pilot projects. We address this knowledge gap first by exploring concepts from the sociology of expectations. We then unpack expectations in a case study of REDD+ pilot projects in Tanzania, using extensive qualitative data reflecting the perspectives and experiences of a wide range of actors involved. Our study finds that expectations play a performative role, mobilizing actors and resources, despite uncertainty identified among policy-makers and practitioners. We also find that once raised, expectations are dynamic and continually mediated by actors and social contexts, which conflicts with attempts to ‘manage’ them. We argue therefore that a trade-off exists between fully piloting new initiatives and raising expectations. We also argue that failure to address this trade-off has implications beyond pilot project objectives and timelines, which are experienced most acutely by village communities. We argue for more critical engagement with expectations and the embedding of accountability for expectations in conservation and development practice. Our findings also challenge the discourse of ‘needing’ to pilot, which prioritizes awareness, impact and innovation without fully considering the potential negative impact of unfulfilled expectations.

Long-Term Impacts of China’s New Commercial Harvest Exclusion Policy on Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in the Temperate Forests of Northeast China

Temperate forests in Northeast China have been severely exploited by timber harvesting in the last century. To reverse this trend, China implemented the Classified Forest Management policy in the Natural Forest Conservation Program in 1998 to protect forests from excessive harvesting. However, the policy was unable to meet the 2020 commitment of increasing growing stock (set in the Kyoto Protocol) because of high-intensity harvesting. Accordingly, China banned all commercial harvesting in Northeast China in 2014. In this study, we investigated the long-term impacts of the no commercial harvest (NCH) policy on ecosystem services and biodiversity using a forest landscape model, LANDIS PRO 7.0, in the temperate forests of the Small Khingan Mountains, Northeast China. We designed three management scenarios: The H scenario (the Classified Forest Management policy used in the past), the NCH scenario (the current Commercial Harvest Exclusion policy), and the LT scenario (mitigation management, i.e., light thinning). We compared total aboveground forest biomass, biomass by tree species, abundance of old-growth forests, and diversity of tree species and age class in three scenarios from 2010 to 2100. We found that compared with the H scenario, the NCH scenario increased aboveground forest biomass, abundance of old-growth forests, and biomass of most timber species over time; however, it decreased the biomass of rare and protected tree species and biodiversity. We found that the LT scenario increased the biomass of rare and protected tree species and biodiversity in comparison with the NCH scenario, while it maintained aboveground forest biomass and abundance of old-growth forests at a high level (slightly less than the NCH scenario). We concluded there was trade-off between carbon storage and biodiversity. We also concluded that light thinning treatment was able to regulate the trade-off and alleviate the negative effects associated with the NCH policy. Our results highlighted limitations of the NCH policy and provided new insights into sustainable forest management and the interdependence between human society and the forest ecosystem.

THE ANALYSIS ON THE STAKEHOLDERS OF CONFLICT MITIGATION IN THE WAY KAMBAS NATIONAL PARK, LAMPUNG

Stakeholders with different interests and influences (power) are related to the human-wild elephant conflict mitigation in the Way Kambas National Park in Lampung. Stakeholders need to manage properly to achieve conflict mitigation objectives optimally. This research was conducted in Way Kambas National Park in Lampung. Data were collected with observations, interviews, and related document studies without involving active participations of related stakeholders and data were analyzed by using descriptive qualitative analysis. This research was conducted from September to December 2016. The identification results showed that there were 11 stakeholders dealing with the human-wild elephant conflict mitigation in Way Kambas National Park. The identified stakeholders were divided into three classifications: (1) subject stakeholders coming from farmer groups and people from buffering villages, (2) key player stakeholders consisting of Way Kambas National Park Institution, regional government (village, district and provincial governments), local partners/non-government organizations (Sumatra Forest Conservation and Wildlife Conservation Society-Indonesia Program), Forum Rembug Desa Penyangga/village discussion forums, and Lampung University, and (3) the context setter stakeholder from a private company (PT. Nusantara Tropical Fruit). This research did not find stakeholder from crowd classification. The relationships between stakeholders showed complementary cooperation. The implication of human-wild elephant conflict mitigation management in Way Kambas National Park is that the stakeholder management to build cooperation and collaboration in the form of communication forums to achieve the objectives of human-wild elephant conflict mitigation in Way Kambas National Park is required.Keywords: stakeholder, power-interest matrix, actor-linkage matrix, Way Kambas National Park

Intra- and interspecific tree diversity promotes multitrophic plant–Hemiptera–ant interactions in a forest diversity experiment

Interactions between species of different trophic levels have long been recognized as fundamental processes in ecology. Although mounting evidence indicates that plant species diversity (PSD) or plant genetic diversity (PGD) can influence the plant-associated arthropod community, these two fundamental levels of biodiversity are not often manipulated simultaneously to assess their effects on species interactions. We used a large tree diversity experiment (BEF-China), which manipulates PSD and PGD in a crossed design to test individual and combined effects of PSD and PGD on multitrophic interaction networks and interaction partner species richness and occurrence. We focused on two tree species, on which sap-sucking Hemiptera and interacting ant species commonly occur. This tri-trophic interaction can be divided into the antagonistic plant–Hemiptera interaction and the mutualistic Hemiptera–ant interaction, known as trophobioses. Qualitative evaluation of tri-trophic interaction networks at different PSD and PGD combinations showed increased interaction partner redundancy at high PSD and PGD. This was supported by increased Hemiptera species richness at high PSD and PGD. Furthermore, the data indicate higher occurrence of Hemiptera and trophobioses and higher trophobiotic ant species richness with increasing PSD and PGD. As no plant diversity component alone caused an effect we conclude that the combined effect of high PGD and high PSD might be additive. In summary, as plant genetic diversity, especially at low species richness, seems to increase the interaction partner redundancy in interaction networks and the diversity of interacting communities, we suggest that genetic diversity should be considered in forest conservation and restoration programs.

The politics of swidden: A case study from Nghe An and Son La in Vietnam

Swidden cultivation practices have been seen as a major driver of deforestation and forest degradation in Southeast Asia. Using two case studies from Vietnam, this paper examines discourses around swidden practices at multiple levels of governance. Our findings show diverse interpretations of swidden resulting in different policy preferences and policy translations when addressing the issue. At national level, swidden is blamed as a principal driver of deforestation and forest degradation, and as such is a practice to be eliminated. As a result of this national stance, provincial level authorities see the existence of swidden as a failure by which their political performance will be judged. Conversely, swidden communities are seen at district level as an innovative solution to help resource-limited police forces ensure national security in border areas. Local commune and village leaders view swidden as a traditional practice to be respected, so as to maintain harmonious relationships amongst social groups, and avoid ethnic groups protesting against the government. Such differences in discourses and political interests have led to swidden becoming an ‘invisible’ issue, with government authorities failing to collect and report on data. Not recognizing swidden also means that swidden actors are practically ‘forgotten’ in the design and implementation of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) and Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES). Their omission from forest conservation and management incentive programmes could lead to further social marginalization, and potentially result in deforestation and forest degradation in the area. Our findings suggest that REDD+ policies should take into account diverging political interests on controversial land uses such as swidden cultivation.

PENGARUH PROGRAM KONSERVASI HUTAN KOTA OLEH (PEMERINTAH DAN SWASTA) DAN KEPEDULIAN MASYARAKAT TERHADAP KONSERVASI HUTAN KOTA (2013)

The objective of this research was to know the effect of the forest conservation program and caring community against effectiveness of urban forest conservation. This research applied true experimental design with posttest-only control design. This populations of this research is part of community around urban city. The samples of this research were community as government program and private program. The instrument of this this research namely Effectiveness test and caring scale questionnaire. The research data are quantitative data consisted by score Effectiveness test and caring scale, collected on February until May 2013. Data were analysed by linear variant statistical analysis (ANAVA), continued with Tukey test. The result of research indicated that there were conservation program toward the effectiveness of urban forest conservation. community with government program having the value of effectiveness higher then from private program. Based on this research, the researcher suggest to the government to keep the program run and countinues and for private / corporation must have another program to make conservation program more effective

Costs of delivery approaches for providing livelihood projects to local communities as part of REDD+ programmes: An analysis from Madagascar

SUMMARYProviding benefits to local people from forest conservation programmes is an important issue for policy makers. Livelihood projects are a common way to provide benefits, but there is little information about their costs. We analysed 463 livelihood projects in the Ankeniheny-Zahamena Corridor Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) pilot project in Madagascar to understand how different approaches to delivering livelihood projects affect costs. We compared costs across four approaches: conservation agreements, small grants, direct implementation and application of social safeguards. The approach impacted overall costs and the proportion of funds reaching communities. Projects implemented as safeguards were most expensive and had the lowest proportion of expenditures reaching the community. Projects provided as part of conservation agreements directed the highest proportion of expenditures to communities. Our results highlight that how livelihood projects are delivered has implications for project costs and community benefits and should be an important consideration in the design and implementation of REDD+ and forest conservation policies.

The hidden layer of indigenous land tenure: informal forest ownership and its implications for forest use and conservation in Panama's largest collective territory

A growing body of evidence points to the effectiveness of indigenous territories in reducing tropical deforestation, and global development goals call for increased legal recognition of indigenous land tenure. Yet indigenous land tenure systems are typically complex and multi-layered, and as such remain poorly understood in terms of the pathways through which embedded layers, rules, and norms influence the use and maintenance of forests. This paper illustrates one example of this multi-layered tenure in the case of indigenous communities in the Comarca Ngabe-Bugle, a semi-autonomous, shared territory in western Panama. While the comarca holds one formal collective title, research across five communities reveals an informal system of forest ownership that influences how forest resources are managed, and that has implications for longer-term forest conservation efforts. The findings show that indigenous households use and manage a wide range of plant species, but that access to forest resources is uneven, and pressure on existing forests continues to increase, even from within the comarca through population growth. Mature forest surrounding the communities is held in de facto ownership by individuals and families who restrict access to resources, and this informal tenure system appears to be slowing deforestation, at least over the short-term. Many of these forest stewards wish to protect at least part of the forest over the long-term, while several forest parcels are being kept in reserve for the next generation of farmers. This hidden form of forest tenure, embedded within the communally-held lands of the comarca, highlights an important research need for those looking to improve the effectiveness of forest conservation programs in reducing deforestation and improving indigenous livelihoods.

Design of tropical forest conservation contracts considering risk of deforestation

Payments for Forest Conservation (PFC) programs financially compensate forest owners to maintain and increase the provision of ecosystem services. Nonetheless, their effectiveness and additionality in preventing deforestation and degradation remain contested. The design of PFC contracts can influence landowner participation and in-turn a program’s prospects for additionality. We examined preferences for select PFC contractual attributes among over 200 private forest owners in Ecuador’s Amazon basin using a discrete choice experiment. Forest owners at high-risk of deforestation, as compared to others of lower risk, were almost eight-times more likely to select contracts that allowed timber harvest under a management plan, about three-times more likely to select contracts managed by local municipalities or international NGOs, and showed stronger preferences for long-term contracts. To increase enrollment of forest lands at higher risk of deforestation and degradation PFC contracts might need to reconsider the benefits of increasing financial incentives, pursue administration through local municipalities or international NGOs, allow sustainable timber harvesting, and seek permanent agreements.

Using soundscapes to detect variable degrees of human influence on tropical forests in Papua New Guinea.

There is global concern about tropical forest degradation, in part, because of the associated loss of biodiversity. Communities and indigenous people play a fundamental role in tropical forest management and are often efficient at preventing forest degradation. However, monitoring changes in biodiversity due to degradation, especially at a scale appropriate to local tropical forest management, is plagued by difficulties, including the need for expert training, inconsistencies across observers, and lack of baseline or reference data. We used a new biodiversity remote-sensing technology, the recording of soundscapes, to test whether the acoustic saturation of a tropical forest in Papua New Guinea decreases as land-use intensity by the communities that manage the forest increases. We sampled soundscapes continuously for 24 hours at 34 sites in different land-use zones of 3 communities. Land-use zones where forest cover was fully retained had significantly higher soundscape saturation during peak acoustic activity times (i.e., dawn and dusk chorus) compared with land-use types with fragmented forest cover. We conclude that, in Papua New Guinea, the relatively simple measure of soundscape saturation may provide a cheap, objective, reproducible, and effective tool for monitoring tropical forest deviation from an intact state, particularly if it is used to detect the presence of intact dawn and dusk choruses.

An analysis of the relationship between drought events and mangrove changes along the northern coasts of the Pe rsian Gulf and Oman Sea

Relating the changes of mangrove forests to spatially explicit reductions in rainfall amounts and increases in drought occurrences is a prerequisite for improving the effectiveness and success of mangrove forest conservation programs. To this end, we investigated the relationship between drought events (quantified using the Standardized Precipitation Index [SPI]) and changes in area and canopy cover of mangrove forests on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea using satellite imagery and long-term annual rainfall data over a period of 30 years (1986–2016). Statistical analyses revealed 1998 as the year marking the most significant change-point in the mean annual rainfall values in the catchments and mangroves, after which average SPI values consistently remained at lower levels. In the period of 1998–2016, decreases in the mean annual rainfall and increases in the severity of droughts differed spatially and were greater in the catchments and mangroves on the coasts of the Oman Sea than the coasts of the Persian Gulf. These spatially explicit results were closely mirrored by the mangrove response, with differential in reductions in mangrove areas and canopy cover that corresponded closely with the spatial distribution of drought intensities in the different parts of the coasts, with correlation coefficients ≥0.89 for the different coastal regions.

Accounting for ecosystem services in compensating for the costs of effective conservation in protected areas

Protected areas are a major approach for conserving ecosystem services globally. Effective conservation in protected areas must integrate human livelihoods into the design and management of conservation. Although ecosystem services can contribute to reducing local people's costs of conservation, exploitation of ecosystem services often results in ecosystem degradation. One important ecosystem service is fuelwood, which is used by >2.5 billion people worldwide. Conservation policy design needs information on the demand for and values of fuelwood that can be extracted without compromising conservation goals of protected areas. We estimated local people's willingness to pay (WTP) for access to fuelwood in China's Wolong Nature Reserve, which is undergoing a net increase in forest area. Forest recovery in Wolong resulted from both the protection of the reserve and conservation under China's Natural Forest Conservation Program (NFCP). The estimated mean WTP for access to fuelwood accounted for about 21% of the payment under the NFCP. Among household characteristics, the cultural practice of cooking pig fodder, for which there were poor substitutes, played a major role in driving the demand for fuelwood. Although fuelwood collection can be prevented through increased conservation payments, fuelwood collection under forest management that fulfills conservation goals of the reserve can substantially reduce the costs of conservation. In addition, many other ecosystem services are also important to local people's livelihoods, and the combined values of different ecosystem services can substantially lower the costs of effective conservation in Wolong and many other protected areas around the world.

Spatially explicit return on investment to private forest conservation for water purification in Indiana, USA

Conservation programs that incentivize the increased provision of ecosystem services on private lands have become common policy instruments. The forgone revenues implied by these programs and the ecosystem services benefits they provide might be spatially heterogeneous. However, such programs are not always spatially targeted to maximize the return on conservation investment (ROI). Here, we use an integrated spatial, ecological-economic modeling approach to assess the ROI for water purification in the case of the Indiana Classified Forest and Wildlands (CFW) Program, United States. We compared the ROI of the existing non-spatially targeted CFW expansion to hypothetical, spatially targeted expansion scenarios in the White River Basin of Indiana. First, we projected nutrient retention services to increase greatly under the hypothetical spatially targeted scenarios and modestly in the non-spatially targeted, baseline case. Second, our results revealed the inclusion of conservation costs could substantially change the conservation priorities. In particular, private forestlands in subwatersheds with average conservation benefits and low conservation costs, as opposed to those with high conservation benefits and high conservation costs, would be prioritized for the CFW program, based on their positive ROIs. Third, we found that the benefits from the single ecosystem service of nutrient retention could exceed the conservation costs of the tax deductions and forgone alternatives (i.e., agriculture) if the program was targeted to contaminated watersheds. This research contributes to the integration of forest economics, forest conservation, and forest ecology to assess the effectiveness of forest conservation programs such as the CFW. It also informs citizens and governments on the benefits and costs of potential targeted increased enrollments of the CFW program in Indiana.

Beyond money: Does REDD+ payment enhance household's participation in forest governance and management in Nepal's community forests?

Incentives can enhance community participation in conservation programs, but our understanding of how an economic incentive influences the participation of households in forest management is limited. REDD+ (Reducing Emission for Deforestation and forest Degradation)—a climate change mitigation mechanism initiated by international communities—provides payments to developing countries for better conservation of their forests. The REDD+ pilot project was implemented in community forests of Nepal through which REDD+ payment was distributed to the households involved in forest conservation. We examine whether REDD+ payments enhance participation of households in forest conservation, benefit provision, policy making, community services and capacity building programs in community forests of Nepal. Our results show that socio-economic factors such as education, family size, agricultural land holdings, and biophysical factors such as distance from respondent's household to the affiliated community forest are more likely to determine the participation in community forest management rather than economic incentive provided by the REDD+ pilot project.

Emerging Evidence on the Effectiveness of Tropical Forest Conservation.

The PLOS ONE Collection “Measuring forest conservation effectiveness” brings together a series of studies that evaluate the effectiveness of tropical forest conservation policies and programs with the goal of measuring conservation success and associated co-benefits. This overview piece describes the geographic and methodological scope of these studies, as well as the policy instruments covered in the Collection as of June 2016. Focusing on forest cover change, we systematically compare the conservation effects estimated by the studies and discuss them in the light of previous findings in the literature. Nine studies estimated that annual conservation impacts on forest cover were below one percent, with two exceptions in Mexico and Indonesia. Differences in effect sizes are not only driven by the choice of conservation measures. One key lesson from the studies is the need to move beyond the current scientific focus of estimating average effects of undifferentiated conservation programs. The specific elements of the program design and the implementation context are equally important factors for understanding the effectiveness of conservation programs. Particularly critical will be a better understanding of the causal mechanisms through which conservation programs have impacts. To achieve this understanding we need advances in both theory and methods.

Reduced Runoff Due to Anthropogenic Intervention in the Loess Plateau, China

To maintain the sustainable utilization of water resources and reduce soil erosion in the Loess Plateau, the Chinese government has adopted a number of environmental restoration strategies since 1999, including the Grain for Green Project (GFGP) and the Natural Forest Conservation Program; these large projects greatly alter the regional water cycle. Detecting runoff changes and quantitatively assessing the contribution of anthropogenic activities (including land use/cover change (LUCC) and water diversion) and climate change (including potential evaporation and precipitation) are imperative for implementing sustainable management strategies. Using observed records from 15 hydrological stations and 85 national meteorological stations from 1980 to 2013, the decomposition method, based on the Budyko hypothesis, is used to quantify the impact of climate variation and anthropogenic interference on annual runoff for the 12 catchments in the Loess Plateau. The results show the following: (1) the observed annual runoff exhibited a negative trend in all 12 catchments (significant in eight catchments) with a range of −1.94 to −0.16 mm·year−1 and exhibited a substantial difference before and after 1999; (2) the sensitivity of runoff to vegetation change, precipitation, and potential evapotranspiration increased in most catchments after 1999, indicating that great challenges and uncertainties might be introduced to regional water resource availability; and (3) the anthropogenic interference, particularly LUCC caused by forest strategies, has become the main contribution to runoff change. We suggest that more attention should be given to water resource availability and that the hydrologic consequences of revegetation should be taken into account in future management.

Preventing Escape of Non-Native Species from Aquaculture Facilities in Florida, Part 1: General Considerations and Regulations

Aquaculture is an important and diverse segment of the agricultural economy in Florida. Ornamental, live bait, food finfish, and other segments of this industry culture and trade in non-native species. Escape or release of these non-native cultured organisms is an environmental and legal concern in Florida and therefore a key consideration in aquaculture farm construction and operation. This 7-page fact sheet is the first in a four-part series devoted to educating industry and other stakeholders on the importance of preventing the escape of non-native species from aquaculture facilities, as well as strategies for non-native species containment and regulatory compliance. It introduces the series, explains why non-native species containment is important, provides information on regulations, including the Florida Aquaculture Best Management Practices rule, describes the BMP inspection process, and provides advice on achieving compliance with these important regulations. Written by Quenton M. Tuckett, Carlos V. Martinez, Jared L. Ritch, Katelyn M. Lawson, and Jeffrey E. Hill, and published by the School of Forest Resources and Conservation Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, August 2016. FA195/FA195: Preventing Escape of Non-Native Species from Aquaculture Facilities in Florida, Part 1: General Considerations and Regulations (ufl.edu)

Preventing Escape of Non-Native Species from Aquaculture Facilities in Florida, Part 2: Facility Evaluation Strategies

Understanding how non-native species escape or are accidentally released helps producers better design and operate aquaculture facilities to reduce or prevent escape. Active management of critical points where escape is possible will help achieve regulatory compliance. This 6-page fact sheet is the second in a four-part series devoted to educating industry and other stakeholders on the importance of preventing the escape of non-native species from aquaculture facilities, as well as strategies for non-native species containment and regulatory compliance. It describes farm layouts, explains how fish escape, and outlines a process that aquaculturists can complete to identify potential escape points on their farms. Written by Jeffrey E. Hill, Quenton M. Tuckett, Carlos V. Martinez, Jared L. Ritch, and Katelyn M. Lawson, and published by the School of Forest Resources and Conservation Program in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, August 2016. FA196/FA196: Preventing Escape of Non-Native Species from Aquaculture Facilities in Florida, Part 2: Facility Evaluation Strategies (ufl.edu)

Evolving frontier land markets and the opportunity cost of sparing forests in western Amazonia

Efforts aimed at sparing forests on tropical forest frontiers through REDD+, PES or conservation initiatives currently rely on a limited understanding of the operation of land markets and their effects on the opportunity cost of forests as frontiers develop. In this paper, we draw on a unique dataset of landholder-reported land transactions that includes post-1991 land sales-in three sub-montane frontier forest areas on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes. We analyze reported land sales that took place between 1979 and 2013 among Amazonian frontier farmers and find highly active land markets in all three areas, often in the absence of formal land tenure. As frontiers developed, parcel size fell, as did the portion of remaining forest cover, and land prices rose, reflecting both forest clearing and general land price inflation as the areas became more populated and developed. Across three study districts in 2013, each additional hectare of forest cleared raised the expected price of a parcel of land by US $1371–$2587. Importantly, we estimate the opportunity cost per hectare of frontier forest rose markedly over time: by $124–$226 per year between 2003 and 2013, a rate of increase over that period of 9–27% per year. Forest conservation programs that rely on estimates of landholders' willingness to accept compensation for sparing forest need to take into account that these values change rapidly as frontiers develop.

Will up-scaled forest conservation incentives in the Peruvian Amazon produce cost-effective and equitable outcomes?

SUMMARYDeforestation and forest degradation in the Peruvian Amazon represent a major threat to biodiversity-related ecosystem services and the global climate. In 2010, the Peruvian Ministry of Environment launched the National Forest Conservation Program for Climate Change Mitigation, an innovative approach to maintaining forest cover of over 54 million hectares of land in protected areas and indigenous and peasant communities. A key component is a payments for environmental services scheme encouraging investments in sustainable land and forest uses in community-controlled territories. We conducted an ex-ante assessment of how the program would play out in terms of conservation cost–effectiveness, income effects and distributional (equity) outcomes if payments were up-scaled, as intended, to all native communities in the Peruvian Amazon. Our spatially explicit impact assessment relied on remotely sensed deforestation data and field data-supported estimates of conservation opportunity costs. We found that the spatially heterogeneous distribution of forestland and economic returns to multiple land uses across communities results in important tradeoffs between hypothetical cost–effectiveness, poverty alleviation and equity outcomes. Nevertheless, our scenario analyses suggested that alternative design options for payment schemes could improve both cost–effectiveness and equity outcomes simultaneously.