Forest Co-management Research Articles

A potential model of national forest co-management: History of aspen management on the Leech Lake Reservation and Chippewa National Forest in Minnesota

Aspen exists as the most abundant and industrially important forest type in contemporary Minnesota. Historically, the species was seen as economically undesirable yet saw prolific increases in abundance due to pine harvest and fire. The Leech Lake Reservation exists as a unique case study of tribal-U.S. Forest Service co-management, with 90 % of reservation land within Chippewa National Forest boundaries. This large geographical intersection was created by a series of American Indian law policies and makes the relationship between the Chippewa National Forest and the Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe unique within the USDA National Forest System. Comparison of pre-reservation and more modern forest/land cover types within the modern-day boundaries of the Leech Lake Reservation were conducted alongside investigation of historical management authority documentation of Chippewa National Forest and Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe cooperation and broader historical management of aspen in Minnesota. Results suggest historical power dynamics between the Chippewa National Forest and Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe influenced decreasing pine and increasing aspen on the Leech Lake Reservation. However, the modern relationship between the Chippewa National Forest and the Leech Lake Band of Ojibwe shows the potential for successful co-management within the shared goals of aspen management.

Collective participation in conservation easements in rural China: Evidence from the Qianjiangyuan National Park

Conservation easements (CE), as an emerging conservation strategy in China, have gained successful collective participation within the Qianjiangyuan National Park with all its collectively-owned forestlands under easements. This study uses an analytical framework developed from the social-ecological systems (SES) framework to explore systemic inter-dependencies among social, economic, political, and natural processes that contextualize the agreements and patterns of interaction where collective participation is achieved. The results indicate that broader-scale variables under socio-ecological contexts, by affecting the resource system, government system, actor system variables, and their interactions, play a more important role in CE participation than sole individual variables. At the regional scale, changing socio-political factors have influenced rural communities' resource utilization and reduced economic dependency on logging activities, facilitating CE adoption. Within the focal action situation, collective participation was achieved under the rural governance system in which actors interact to form community-level consensus through rural self-governance and consultation, influenced by the mobilizing power of the authority. The case study in China demonstrates the feasibility of using CE as a forest co-management strategy in densely populated protected areas under a common-property regime and the necessity of considering both regional-scale factors and local dynamics in CE design and implementation.

What factors influence women’s participation in co-management? A case study of Sundarban mangrove forest management in Bangladesh

Understanding what factors influence women’s participation in forest co-management is vital for effective policy planning and women’s empowerment. The views of women and men from four villages in the Chandpai forest range on what influences women’s participation in forest co-management were gathered qualitatively. Data were collected through focus group discussions (n = 16) and in-depth interviews with key informants (n = 29), and thematically analyzed. The participation of women in forest co-management was mostly influenced by family expectations, then religious and societal norms. Women stated that these expectations constrained their participation, whereas men suggested it was less influential. Men reported that women’s participation was motivated by a sense of responsibility to protect the forest, while women reported that participation was mainly focused on economic security for the family. Activities to increase women’s participation could include training (e.g. forest protection, leadership), awareness campaigns regarding women’s roles, and gender-balanced involvement in household activities.

Forest co-management for improvement of livelihood and forest cover: Experience from Sal Forest of Bangladesh

Forest conservation and livelihood improvement are the prime goals of forest-protected area co-management widely practiced in tropical countries. In Bangladesh, the co-management of protected areas (PA) started in 2004 with the funding of donor agencies involving the forest department (FD), non-government organizations (NGOs), along with the communities living in and around the forests. Thus, it is imperative to decipher the impact of co-management on the livelihood of forest-dependent communities (FDC) and forest cover change. The data on livelihood improvement were collected through quantitative and qualitative methods, while satellite data (Landsat images of the years 2008, 2015, and 2022) were utilized to detect forest cover change. The finding indicates that the co-management approach has positively impacted the livelihood of FDC by securing their income sources. The alternate income-generating activities (IGAs) provided to the FDC aids in securing income and livelihoods. However, the communities have experienced antagonistic relationships with forest officials, undesirably influencing their livelihoods. Reducing the dissent on forest management activities between forest officials and participants of the co-management program might positively impact the restoration of the PA. The forest cover area has increased by 18 ha just after the finish of the co-management program, and 18.9 ha has risen from 2009 to 2022. This forest cover increase might be due to the plantation in the denuded areas and livelihood improvement through IGAs posing less pressure on the forest. Therefore, co-management of the Sal forest might increase forest cover and improve the livelihood of FDC.

Conditions for Multilevel Governance, Co-Management and Sustainability in Two Forest Communities in Central Mexico

Multilevel governance (MLG) and co-management are indispensable to sustainable forest management (SFM) and the maintenance of ecosystem services (ES). Through interviews with key external and community actors and workshops in two ejidos in central Mexico, we qualitatively analyzed information on the historical and current uses of forests and the ways the ejidos evolved toward SFM by implementing MLG regulatory frameworks that enabled forest co-management. By studying the perceptions of local stakeholders and the relevance of their interactions to effective local forest management, we found that the history of forest use in the region has favored the local appropriation of socioecosystems through co-management. However, these principles have not simply led to harmonized development and conservation. Although such technical interventions favor forest productivity in local communities, the stakeholders also recognize that certain adjustments could improve and maintain the local ES. Thus, while the conditions of community forest management in Mexico exemplify how local decision-making processes can be both relatively democratic and ecologically beneficial for local communities, it is also necessary to move from a traditional management model to shared governance in community contexts.

Development pathways for co-management in the Sundarban mangrove forest: A multiple stakeholder perspective

The emergence of co-management, where various government and non-government actors work together, is one of the most important governance mechanisms for natural resource management. However, local stakeholders' understanding of forest co-management has thus far been poorly appreciated. This study examined stakeholders' views on the forest co-management system of the Sundarban mangrove forest in Bangladesh. Four villages in the Chandpai range of the Sundarban mangrove forest were selected for the study. Primary data were collected through key informant interviews with multiple stakeholder levels, and focus group discussions with men and women either involved in forest co-management or not. Thematic coding and content analysis of the qualitative data was used to analyse stakeholders' views on key forest co-management activities and practices: forest protection, monitoring, meeting role, training and organisational support. These co-management activities are largely implemented through local stakeholders who are members of a number of institutions: the Village Conservation Forum (VCF), the People's Forum (PF) and the Community Patrol Group (CPG) at the local level, and the Co-management Committee (CMC) at the higher level, in which local, district and national stakeholders are involved. Stakeholders reported both positive and negative views on these co-management activities. While the positive views were mostly related to the benefits obtained from forest co-management practices (e.g., increased knowledge, awareness and ability to obtain entry permits), the negative views were related to the obstacles frequently faced by the local stakeholders, such as limited harvesting opportunities, poor meeting support and strict rules on eligibility for VCF/PF membership. The findings indicated that while stakeholders' views of forest co-management activities were mixed, it did identify the types of existing co-management benefits, problems and challenges of the local people and showed where they differed. Furthermore, this study identified particular ways to strengthen the co-management activities from the local people's perspective, which would enable their participation in the co-management system of the Sundarban mangrove forest.

Listening to Indigenous Voices, Interests, and Priorities That Would Inform Tribal Co-Management of Natural Resources on a California State University Forest

Indigenous communities have experienced a loss of access and ability to contribute to the management of natural resources due to removal from lands, marginalization, and conflicting knowledge systems. Currently, there is increasing momentum toward re-engaging tribes as stewards of their ancestral lands. This article outlines tribal views on co-management and identifies the forest management objectives of a tribal partner to help better inform a forest co-management partnership between a Native American Tribe (Wiyot Tribe) and a California Polytechnic State University (Humboldt). Qualitative research methods were used to analyze 13 semi-structured interviews utilizing an adaptive co-management framework with enrolled tribal members and representatives to understand the expectations and perceived barriers to a successful co-management relationship. Interviewees repeatedly mentioned interest in the management of wildlife, forest health and resilience, and fuels reduction. Participants also expressed interest in incorporating education and training of tribal youth in the management of forest resources and traditional ecological knowledge. The semi-structured interviews provided participants a platform to share their thoughts and express their feelings regarding the future stewardship of ancestral forest lands.

The role of protected areas co-management in enhancing resistance and resilience of deciduous forest ecosystem to extreme climatic events in Bangladesh

Due to ongoing and projected climate change as well as increasing anthropogenic disturbances, the tropical deciduous forest has been experiencing a decline in its biomass and productivity. To mitigate this adverse effect, many tropical countries have adopted forest co-management engaging local communities. However, the effects of co-management on the resistance and resilience of forest ecosystems to extreme climatic events have rarely been tested. The present study investigates the effects of co-management on resistance and resilience to extreme climatic events in two major tropical deciduous forest protected areas of Bangladesh, namely Madhupur National Park (MNP) and Bhawal National Park (BNP), through remotely sensed satellite data. We used the Google Earth Engine platform to access the Landsat images from 1990 to 2020 for a comprehensive assessment of the forest cover condition under two major management regimes (i.e., traditional and co-management). We find that co-management slows down the rate of forest destruction, where the rate of forest destruction was 108 ha year−1 in MNP and 121 ha year−1 in BNP during the year 1990–2008 under traditional forest management system. Under the co-management regime, forest cover increased by 19 ha year−1 and 41 ha year−1 from 2009 to 2020 respectively in MNP and BNP. Our study finds a highly significant correlation between rainfall (p < 0.001) and forest health, although co-management had poor impacts on forest resistance and resilience in case of extreme climatic events, such as drought and heavy rainfall. We find, no significant impacts of co-management on resistance and resilience to drought in MNP, and on resistance and resilience to heavy rainfall in MNP and BNP. In BNP, the impacts of co-management on resistance (p < 0.05) and resilience (p < 0.01) of forest to drought were highly significant. Forest co-management although have the potentials to reduce the deforestation rate by mitigating anthropogenic disturbances, its capacity to tackle the adverse impact of climate change was limited in our study. An adaptive co-management model, therefore, is crucial for mainstreaming the adverse effect of climate change on the tropical deciduous forest to harness the maximum potential of community participation in forest resources management.

The adoption of earth-observation technologies for deforestation monitoring by Indigenous people: evidence from the Amazon

ABSTRACT Deforestation monitoring is changing the nature of conservation practices in increasingly profound ways. This study illustrates how forest co-management by means of earth-observation technologies among Indigenous communities opens up new debates and perspectives on transformational actions for inclusion and equity in globalization. We analyze cases of drone adoption by the Shipibo Conibo and other Indigenous people on both sides (Peru and Brazil) of the Sierra del Divisor National Park. Our findings indicate that these technology adoptions may be inclusive and beneficial when combined with indigenous knowledge and alternative understandings of forest politics. First, we specify how counter-mapping initiatives grounded in Indigenous communities may be steered towards developing new co-participation and co-design. Second, we identify five key parameters for assessing whether co-participation and co-design during technological adoptions. Third, we assess the short- and long-term benefits, risks and threats in these technological adoption processes, drawing on indigenous perspectives.

Forest co-management in the Sundarban mangrove forest: Impacts of women's participation on their livelihoods and sustainable forest resource conservation

The impacts of women's participation in forest resource management on forest conservation and women's livelihoods are poorly understood. This study investigated women's role in Sundarban mangrove forest co-management in order to identify these impacts. Qualitative data was collected through focus group discussions (FGDs, n = 16) and key informant interviews (KIIs, n = 29) in four villages, at different tiers of co-management institutions, and with multiple stakeholders. Thematic content analysis, a well-established method for analysing qualitative data, was used to investigate the views of stakeholders on women's role in forest co-management and its impact on forest conservation and livelihood outcomes. Women participate in all tiers of forest co-management institutions, including the village conservation forum, people's forum, community patrol group, and co-management committee. This participation has increased their awareness and understanding of government rules and regulations in forest conservation, extended women's social networks, and created opportunities for involvement in alternative income-generating activities. Thus, women have benefited from the provision of greater financial input into their families, which has ultimately elevated women's status in the family. Local women's knowledge of sustainable forest resource harvesting methods and compliance with Bangladesh Forest Department directives can foster forest resources conservation and wildlife protection. Although women contribute to forest conservation through their participation, their representation is lower than that of men in the co-management of the Sundarban mangrove forest. Policy interventions for community members are needed to influence men's attitudes towards women working outside the home. This may equalise gender participation in forest co-management and increase women's livelihood support through greater recognition of their roles and elevating the value and impact of their participation.

Impact of protected areas and co-management on forest cover: A case study from Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh

Deforestation is a matter of serious global concern. Establishing protected areas (PAs), which cover nearly 15% of the world’s surface, is one of the leading approaches to forest conservation. The recent global expansion of PAs has led to the inclusion of local communities in the forest management process, an approach referred to as “co-management.” PAs under co-management are expected to conserve biodiversity while providing support to local communities. This trend for forest co-management has shown mixed results, and a better understanding of its impact on forests and people is required. This study attempts to explore the forest-cover change in a PA of Bangladesh—the Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS). Remote sensing will be used to assess the land-cover change, followed by a household survey to define the impact of local settlements responsible for this change. To analyze the impact of PA and co-management on forest cover, satellite images from 1989, 2007, 2009, and 2015 were considered due to the availability of quality images. The study found that from 1989 to 2015, the region saw a 46% decrease in forest cover compared to 64% inside the PA boundary; deforestation occurred more inside the PA than outside. Moreover, after the implementation of a co-management approach, the rate of deforestation increased inside the PA. Besides the forest conversion, the tree coverage shifted from the core forest area toward the settlement area, causing serious negative impacts on biodiversity. The household survey listed 57,404 households in the region, among which 5195 were situated inside the PA. Co-management in PAs was intended to involve local communities in forest management, but this study showed that the local community is causing more deforestation and shifting the tree coverage towards the forest boundaries. The creation of a large, multi-use buffer zone to ensure the long-term tenure of the core forest area could be a viable option. Such buffer zones can provide effective security and enhance local people’s livelihoods.

Social innovation in social forestry: seeking better management for sustainable forest in Indonesia

The Indonesian state and local community have been conducting forest co-management as part of a new social forestry program initiative. This initiative is proposed to overcome environmental degradation as well as to enhance community well-being by increasing economic outcome of the forest. However, this program has the potential for conflict because of asymmetry between resources dedicated to approving social forestry permits versus capacity building, monitoring, and evaluating management outcomes. The social innovation approaches have been adopted as a potential solution to address complex social forestry program. This article aims to explore how social innovation and village governance in forest communities works. The research framework is designed by modifying the social innovation concept from the Theoretical, Empirical and Policy Foundations for Building Social Innovation in Europe (TEPSIE). Qualitative method is applied, by conducting in-depth interview and focus group discussion with forest policy experts, village authorities, and other stakeholders. Two neighbouring villages namely Sirnajaya and Tugu Utara in the Bogor District, West Java are visited. Sirnajaya represents village with strong government support by the Pilot Program for Incubation of Village Innovation in Local Economic Development (PIID-PEL), while Tugu Utara represents a strong society initiative in local development. The result reveals that social innovation has worked at different phases. However, good cooperation between formal and informal actors can have a better outcome on village development, compared to if each moves independently. The extension of social innovation and network of development can become an engine of village growth to the larger scope. The successful management for social forestry in Indonesia needs to be based on a hybrid governance model that needs to be “good” and “proper”. Therefore, the designs and practices for social forestry governance must be developed in more socially inclusive, reflected local social-economic, political, and cultural conditions.

Short-sighted donors' development strategy by circumventing responsible state agencies

The influence of foreign donors and their development politics on domestic development policies has been an important research topic in the field of development studies. Lately, foreign donors have changed their strategy in forest-related development activities by substantially involving non-state actors. As a foreign donor, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has introduced the forest co-management development concept, altering or initiating important policy and institutional settings in Bangladesh. A mixed qualitative-quantitative method and the case of the USAID-induced forest co-management development model were employed to analyze the development strategy of a donor in a recipient country, based on the main interests of the donor. USAID accomplished their development tasks by substantially involving non-state actors. This approach circumvents responsible state agencies, causing severe long-term risks for sustainable forest development. Such non-state actors, including NGOs and civil society organisations, might provide crucial field access and contribute innovative ideas for better solutions in the short term. However, this strategy can weaken the responsible state agencies within the contexts of already limited state capacity in recipient countries in the long run. The study recommends a solution towards a balanced partnership among state agencies, donor agencies and non-state actors.

Institutionalising co-management activities for conservation of forest resources: Evidence from the Sundarban mangrove forest management of Bangladesh

Understanding local stakeholders' perceptions of co-management institutional activities serves a significant role in the proper functioning of the co-management institutions for the Sundarban mangrove forest conservation effort, but this currently remains unexplored. This study aimed to identify the current co-management institutions, co-management activities, and local people's understanding of these activities in the implementation of the co-management approach. The study was conducted in four villages in the Chandpai range of the Sundarban mangrove forest. Thematic content analysis was conducted on the qualitative data, which had been collected through key informant interviews at the local, regional and national levels, followed by focus group discussions in the study villages. The key forest co-management activities and practices identified were: forest protection and monitoring; meetings; local livelihood initiatives; and organisational supports. These co-management activities were implemented through institutions largely situated at the local level, through Village Conservation Forum, People's Forum and Community Patrol Group; higher-level institutions included the Co-management Committee, where local, district and national stakeholders were represented. Local people with forest dependency were participating in forest co-management activities and their awareness of forest conservation and social network had increased. In addition, people who had received training from government and non-government organisations reported benefits such as improved resource harvesting techniques, organisational skills and practical knowledge, which would be useful in times of natural disasters. However, local people also reported a range of issues affecting their full participation, which included top down decision-making, insignificant financial support, absence of alternate income sources, lack of meeting places for VCF members, gender inequality in participation, corruption and lack of skill-based training. A key governance issue for the local-level forest co-management institutions was limited access to the government organisations who oversaw policy and institutional control. In contrast, non-government organisations provided important institutional capacity-building support to local communities, and acted as a conduit to higher level committees. Broader impact could be achieved by fostering local participation, especially that of women, through genuine collaboration with other stakeholders, and extending the lessons learned from the study villages through exchange visits and sharing of ideas with other VCF villages in the area.

Dual Governance and the Shadow of State Authority: Co-Management Realities in Rema-Kalenga Protected Area of Bangladesh

ABSTRACT Forest co-management models between local communities and the state have gained considerable attention over the past two decades to reconcile ecological conservation with sustainable livelihoods of local communities. Grounded in an exploratory qualitative methodological focus, this study examines how forest co-management realities have fared vis-à-vis continued asymmetrical power relationships between communities and the state in Bangladesh’s top-down forest governance system, specifically de facto forest governance structures in the case of Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary and its larger landscape zone. Rema-Kalenga’s regional forest actors have been struggling to develop a shared understanding regarding the goals and distribution of power in protected area co-management. The study points toward two developments: First, a low realized level of devolution as Rema-Kalenga’s co-management institutions operate as mere unpaid “helpers” under the shadow of the state’s centralized top-down governance in the Wildlife Sanctuary. Second, this study found signs of emerging dual governance in which local co-management institutions have created their own spaces of engagement and de facto influence in the larger Rema-Kalenga landscape zone, while significantly lacking active involvement in the core zone. Connections between these two spheres are sporadic, hampering ecosystem-approaches in Rema-Kalenga, and questioning the cohesiveness of co-management purposes in the studied area.

Does adoption of on-farm tree planting depend on Forest co-management? Evidence from selected Forest sites in Kenya

•The study contributes to knowledge on factors affecting participation in forest co-management and on-farm tree planting.•CFAs creation aimed to increase participation in forest management and enable access to forest resources.•Communities’ access low value products from forest such as firewood and have limited user rights.•While farmers age, education and extension services increased the likelihood of on farm tree planting, CFA membership and land tenure decreased.•Results suggest that co-management offer access for training and extensions, but do not facilitate adoption of on-farm trees.

Analyzing multi-temporal satellite imagery and stakeholders' perceptions to have an insight into how forest co-management is changing the protected area landscapes in Bangladesh

Forest protected area co-management, which is viewed as an effective forest conservation strategy in many parts of the world, got rooted in Bangladesh in 2004. Nevertheless, its success in maintaining healthy status of forest landscapes is subject to strong challenges in Bangladesh where anthropogenic pressure on forest resources is extremely high. In his study, satellite imageries of two randomly selected important PAs of the country - Lawachara National Park (LNP) and Teknaf Wildlife Sanctuary (TWS) - were analyzed and linked to people's perception in understanding the conservation dynamics in the co-managed PAs. While the overall rate of forest cover loss declined from 33.56% during 2004–2011 to 11.23% during 2011–2017, the net impact on individual PA was not so positive: forest cover declination rate increased in LNP but decreased in TWS. However, even though bushy area is on significant rise in LNP (4.72% during 2004–2011, 40.12% during 2011–2017), it showed a little falling trend in TWS (7.44% during 2004–2011, 6.61% during 2011–2017). While people engaged in co-management were more inclined to highlight the success of co-management activities (Odds ratio = 1.721), the forest officials were less likely to say so (Odds ratio = 0.758). All parties except the direct beneficiaries of co-management activities had the same perception that co-management did not significantly improve the forest cover conditions in the PAs. The study, a combination of science and the society, has come up with a succinct conclusion that common people have strong insights into the extent of impact of forest management policy, and thus, their opinion should be accounted for while formulating or implementing such policy.

A new model of development coalition building: USAID achieving legitimate access and dominant information in Bangladesh’s forest policy

The influence of non-domestic actors and institutions on domestic policymaking process has been a constant research topic for a long time in the field of development studies. During recent years, however, the coalition strategy of foreign donors seems to have changed in favor of non-governmental allies in development cooperation, instead of state bureaucracies of the target countries. As a key foreign donor, for instance, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has introduced the forest co-management development concept, altering important policy and institutional settings in Bangladesh. The changes resulted from a combination of development inputs and politics, including funding, technical assistance and coalition with multiple, mostly non-state stakeholders. In this article, we use the concepts of development policy change, the global governance theorem of direct access to domestic policymaking process, and bureaucratic politics theory from development policy analysis for analyzing this new coalition strategy. A mixed qualitative-quantitative methods approach and the case of the USAID-induced forest co-management development model were employed to analyze the new coalition strategy based on the main interests of the donor. The results indicate that in the development process, USAID formed coalitions with non-state actors at all levels, thus circumventing national bureaucracies. The donor substantially involved non-state actors to (1) overcome the dominant information of state bureaucracies by eliciting data in the donors’ informal interests, (2) gain control over the implementation process at multiple levels, and (3) enhance pressure on all levels of government for substantive policy changes. In contrast, the initial and very marginal coalitions with state agencies imply an initial cost for legitimately accessing a country’s governance system. Furthermore, such detouring of state agencies poses the questions of operational authority and, concurrently, of ownership to sustain the changed practices. A broader implication based on the study findings is to especially consider the sovereignty issue in a development context in a recipient country.

Impact of forest co-management programs on forest conditions in Malawi

ABSTRACTForest co-management programs aim to conserve forest resources. However, there is little evidence of its effectiveness. We assess the impact of co-management approaches on forest conditions in Zomba-Malosa and Ntchisi forest reserves in Malawi using a multiple-site, plot-based, and control-intervention design. We used tree density and species richness as indicators of forest condition. Evidence of human activities was used as potential indicators of current and future impacts. Local peoples’ perceptions of the impact of co-management on forest were also sought to validate the inventory information. Co-managed plots have higher tree density than state managed plots. Indicators of human activities including felled trees, farming and settlement plots, and grazing, were observed in both co-managed and state managed forest block. A majority of respondents, 84% in Zomba-Malosa and 73% in Ntchisi, perceive the co-management program to have a positive impact on forest conditions against a general worsening trend. Despite having a potential to improve forest conditions, the findings suggest that the outcomes of a co-management may vary depending on preexisting conditions and how communities understand and interpret the program. Hence, programs should not be implemented as a universal package. Furthermore, even with method triangulation, the lack of baseline data limited the quantification impacts; hence, integration of participatory research into the program is recommended.

Understanding community criteria for assessing forest co-management programmes: evidence from Malawi

Criteria for assessing success or failure of forest co-management programmes may vary among different participating actors. Local people are important actors in co-management, thus understanding their perceived criteria is important in evaluating forest co-management programmes. We interviewed 134 ordinary community members and 21 committee members participating in a forest co-management programme in Zomba and Ntchisi, Malawi in order to understand how local actors understand and define criteria for assessing forest co-management programme. Respondents identified five criteria including forest conservation, access to forest resources, participation in decision making, infrastructure development and improved livelihoods. Ordinary community members highlighted access to forest resources and improved livelihoods as important success criteria, whilst committee members identified forest conservation as an important criterion, and the difference was significant in both Zomba (χ2 = 11.79. p = 0.036) and Ntchisi (χ2 = 8.97, p = 0.042). Furthermore, perceived criteria were influenced by household socio-economic characteristics including gender, wealth status and level of education. Thus, evaluation studies should be designed to capture perspectives and experiences across social strata within a community.