Foreign Population Research Articles

Are Air Pollution, Economic and Non-Economic Factors Associated with Per Capita Health Expenditures? Evidence from Emerging Economies.

Environmental pollution, rapid economic growth, and other social factors have adverse effects on public health, which have consequently increased the burden of health expenditures during the last two decades. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and the environment index, as well as economic and non-economic factors such as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth, foreign direct investment, population aging, and secondary education impacts on per capita government and private health expenditures in 13 emerging economies for the time period of 1994–2017. We employ robust econometric techniques in this endeavor of panel data analysis to account for the issues of heterogeneity and cross-sectional dependence. This study applies the Lagrange Multiplier (LM) bootstrap approach to investigate the presence of panel cointegration and empirical results underscore the existence of cointegration among variables. For the execution of long-run analysis, we incorporate the two latest estimators, i.e., continuously updated-fully modified (CUP-FM) and continuously updated- bias corrected (CUP-BC). Findings of long-run elasticities have documented that the air-pollution indicators, i.e., CO2 emissions and the environment index, have a positive and significant influence on government health expenditures, while in contrast, both factors negatively influence private health expenditures in emerging economies. We find that economic factors such as GDP growth consistently show a positive impact on both government and private health expenditures, whereas, foreign direct investment exhibits a significant negative and positive impact on government and private health expenditures respectively. Findings of non-economic factors can be used to argue that population aging increases health expenditures while secondary education lowers private health spending in emerging markets. Furthermore, empirical analysis of heterogeneous causality indicates that CO2 emissions, the environment index, GDP growth, foreign direct investment, and secondary education have a unidirectional causal relationship with government and private health expenditures. Population aging has a strong relationship of bidirectional causality with government health expenditures and unidirectional causal relationship with private health expenditures. Findings of this paper put forward key suggestions for policy makers which can be used as valuable instruments for better understanding and aiming to maximize public healthcare and environmental quality gains which are highly connected with sustainable GDP growth and developments in emerging economies.

An evaluating model for smart growth plan based on BP neural network and set pair analysis

Smart growth, as a service to the economy, environment and society, has increasingly become the development pattern for cities of the world, but the degree of smart growth varies from city to city, and not all smart growth plans are suitable for current cities or countries. Therefore, it is of practical significance to measure the success degree of smart growth plan. The current model is accompanied by some problems such as subjectivity, unable to prioritize each plan, and so on. In this paper, an evaluating model was established to scientifically measure and adjust the smart growth plan based on BP neural network and set pair analysis. In this model, an evaluating metric(I) was defined, which was obtained by multiplying the ability score(A) and the coordinative development index(C). Applied to city's current plan, the model can tell us how successful the current plan is for this city, thus on the basis of evaluating result, better new plans for the city in the future can be developed. Finally, the effects of the new plans for population, economy-environment- society were discussed based on Lokta-Volterra equations and the environmental Kuznets curve. A case study was presented in two cities, Karamay and Atlanta. The result showed that the current plan in Atlanta is more successful than that in Karamay, but both the two plans are moderately successful. According to the results, a series of new plans were proposed and their priorities were ranked, the result showed that Atlanta should give priority to urban greening while Karamay give priority to economic development, and the effect of the scientific intelligence growth plan is to expand city's environmental capacity, promote the fair competition between the foreign population and the local population, and improve the balanced node, making the environment damage smaller, society and economic grow better. The model provides powerful reference for cities in developed and developing countries to formulate smart growth plans, especially for developing countries.

Volunteer Associations and Integration of Immigrants in France

The issue of integration is key in the literature about migration. It refers to a set of public policies aiming at integrating foreign populations in a given society. This paper aims at investigating the relationships between the integration of four communities settled in France (Algerian, Portugese, Turkish, and Vietnamese) and the presence of associations. The methodology is based on two approaches, quantitative economics and geography. It uses a new database, extracted from the Journal Officiel and several surveys, noticeably TeO. In a first step we ask whether the regional distribution and the density of associations explain the degree of integration of the migrants stemming from the four communities. In a second step we test whether membership in an association increases or decreases the adoption of oppositional identities and if the latter influences the integration via the access to employment.

Transient migrants at the crossroads of China’s global future

China has witnessed a remarkable growth in its foreign population over the past two decades. Even though they are still quite few in number at the moment, foreigners in China are being increasingly recognized and studied in the broad field of migration studies. Although they have neither the hope nor the desire to become permanent residents of China, most foreigners nonetheless continue to be construed as ‘immigrants’ or ‘migrants’ in both the scholarly and policy-oriented literature. This special issue suggests that applying these terms without problematizing them hinders our understanding of foreigners in the real-world context, in which an increasing number of people have become transient migrants in China and elsewhere. By bringing together articles that depict these foreigners’ lives as transient everywhere they go, this special issue aims to develop a new analytical lens through which ongoing global dynamisms in demography, politics and economy – particularly those that matter much to the future of both foreigners and China – can be simultaneously captured.

Rapid and complicated HIV genotype expansion among high-risk groups in Guangdong Province, China

BackgroundGuangdong Province is one of the most developed and populous provinces in southern China, with frequent foreign exchanges and large transient population. The annual number of cases of HIV/AIDS reported in Guangdong has been higher than most of provinces in China for several successive years. HIV infection by heterosexual transmission occurs across the province, with transmission among men who have sex with men occurring mainly in larger urban centers. There is a lack of widespread and representative data on the distribution of HIV subtypes in Guangdong. This study aimed to thoroughly investigate and estimate the prevalence and distribution of HIV-1 subtypes using a city-based sampling strategy to better understand the characteristics of HIV transmission in Guangdong.MethodsArchived plasma samples (n = 1205) from individuals diagnosed as HIV-1 infection in 2013 were selected randomly from all 21 cities in Guangdong Province. Genotypes were determined using env and/or gag sequences using phylogenetic analysis. The distributions of HIV genotypes in different risk groups and different cities were analyzed.ResultsA total of 15 genotypes, including six discordant genotypes, were identified. The four main HIV-1 subtypes in Guangdong were CRF01_AE (43.2%), CRF07_BC (26.3%), CRF55_01B (8.5%), and CRF08_BC (8.4%). CRF01_AE was the predominant subtype in all risk populations. The high mobility of people shaped the complexity of the HIV genotypes, while the switch of risk factors affected the distribution and future trend of HIV-1 genotypes in Guangdong. Another epicenter located in the western region in addition to the known epicenter cities in the Pearl River Delta region of Guangdong may exist.ConclusionsOur study provides a comprehensive molecular epidemiologic dataset to understand the diversity and distribution of HIV genotypes in Guangdong, as well as to clarify the unique region- and risk group-specific transmission dynamics. The results provide critical and insightful information for more effective intervention strategies to limit HIV transmission in the future.

The deterrent effect of an anti-minaret vote on foreigners’ location choices

In a national ballot in 2009, Swiss citizens surprisingly approved an amendment to the Swiss constitution to ban the further construction of minarets. The ballot outcome manifested reservations and anti-immigrant attitudes in regions of Switzerland which had previously been hidden. We exploit this fact as a natural experiment to identify the causal effect of negative attitudes towards immigrants on foreigners’ location choices and thus indirectly on their utility. Based on a regression discontinuity design with unknown discontinuity points and administrative data on the population of foreigners, we find that the probability of their moving to a municipality which unexpectedly expressed stronger reservations decreases initially by about 40%. The effect is accompanied by a drop of housing prices in these municipalities and levels off over a period of about 5 months. Moreover, foreigners in high-skill occupations react relatively more strongly highlighting a tension when countries try to attract well-educated professionals from abroad.

When do ties bind? Foreign fighters, social embeddedness, and violence against civilians

How do foreign fighters affect civilian victimization in the civil wars they join? Scholars of civil war have gone to great lengths to explain why states and insurgent groups victimize civilians, but they have not explicitly examined the impact of foreign combatants. Furthermore, while contemporary conventional wisdom attaches an overwhelmingly negative connotation to foreign fighters, history shows that the behavior of those who travel to fight in wars far from home varies significantly, especially when it comes to interacting with local populations. To address this variation, I demonstrate how differences in the embeddedness of foreign fighter populations combine with incentives that foreign fighters face to remain in the conflict zone over the long term to shape tendencies towards civilian victimization. My findings from an analysis of insurgent groups from 1990 to 2011 suggest that, overall, foreign fighters lead to escalations in violence against civilians. When comparing across groups that recruit foreign fighters, however, levels of violence differ depending on foreign fighter populations’ coethnicity to the rebel groups they join, and the distances they travel to reach a conflict zone. Specifically, the presence of coethnic foreign fighters leads to fewer escalations in violence, relative to the recruitment of non-coethnic individuals from non-neighboring states. The study provides empirical support to the claim that degrees of embeddedness across foreign fighter populations are important indicators of when and where their presence is likely to pose significant dangers to local populations.

Female Street Namesakes in Selected Polish Cities

The article purports to offer a preliminary analysis of the visibility of women in the names of streets in selected Polish cities. The very idea of gender parity in urban naming is novel in Poland and the present article is probably one of the first such attempts in Polish scholarly literature. The study comprised twelve Polish cities with the highest number of hodonyms: Warsaw [Warszawa], Cracow [Kraków], Poznań, Łódź, Wrocław, Szczecin, Gdańsk, Bydgoszcz, Lublin, Katowice, Częstochowa and Białystok. With different historical circumstances, diverse foreign influences and population characteritics (e.g. autochthonous vs. immigrant), the selection renders the analysis representative. The total number of analysed names of streets, roads, city squares and bridges in those cities was about 25,500, of which those named for individual people (historical or fictitious) varied from one fourth to over 40 percent from city to city. Only individual namesakes have been analysed, since in the case of plural ones it was often unclear whether to treat them as masculine or feminine. The examination of a total of over 7,700 streets named for individual people revealed a heavy bias towards male characters, who constituted on average 89 percent of individual commemorations. Interestingly, this tendency was visible not only with regard to historical figures, but also to fictitious characters (mythological or literary). The differences between cities in the ratio of male namesakes were not huge, and they were hardly traceable directly to the historical characteristics of particular cities. From the tendencies in urban naming an unexpected female pantheon emerges.

At the Crossroads of Uncertainty: Venezuelan Migration to Colombia

The shared 2,219-kilometer border between Colombia and Venezuela was once considered one of the most dynamic borders in Latin America, as thousands of people would cross back and forth daily. The nature of mobility between the two countries has changed dramatically over the past decade, and with it the social geography of both nations. Beginning in the 1950s, large waves of Colombians migrated to Venezuela, an oil rich neighbor, where many found work and economic opportunities in Venezuela’s social welfare state that were not available at home. The Colombian armed conflict also pushed hundreds of thousands of people toward Colombia’s northeastern border, leading many to cross and seek refuge there in the 1990s and 2000s. By 2011, Colombians made up the largest population of foreigners living in Venezuela, almost 700,000 in total (Mejía Ochoa, 2012).

Ohio’s John A. Bingham in Meiji Japan: The Politician as Diplomat

Ohio’s John A. Bingham in Meiji JapanThe Politician as Diplomat Jack Hammersmith (bio) Ohio’s John Bingham was a well-known and successful political figure at the middle of the nineteenth century.1 Despite losing his congressional seat in the wave of Democratic victories in 1862, he was reelected two years later and became a prominent participant in prosecuting Lincoln’s assassins and in drafting the Fourteenth Amendment to the US Constitution. Moreover, 2018 marked the 150th anniversary of his role in the impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson. Yet Bingham, who served eighteen years in Congress, also had a notable diplomatic career that lasted a full dozen years, two-thirds as long as his better-known political one. In this regard, his career would anticipate a number of later ambassadorial postings of prominent politicians to Tokyo such as Mike Mansfield (1977–88), Eugene Mondale (1993–96), and Howard Baker Jr. [End Page 58] (2001–5). Bingham’s nomination to the Japanese post, however, was obtained in the casual manner of America’s nineteenth-century nonprofessional diplomacy as he unsuccessfully sought to trade another nominee, John Watson Foster, the Tokyo assignment for one of equal significance and compensation in Mexico City.2 As minister to Japan from 1873 to 1885, Bingham proved a spirited representative of American interests, yet one with a pronounced empathy for the nation to which he was credited.3 In particular, his support for a restoration of Japanese sovereignty in renegotiating earlier treaties was based on and reinforced by other issues. Guns were one, though far less important than the right for Japan to determine how best to cope with deadly cholera epidemics. On the issue of disease, Bingham brought to bear personal experience, bitterness toward British policy, and a deep admiration for the Japanese as he argued for an independent American policy that promised fairness for the nation he quickly came to admire. Of the issues that helped strengthen Bingham’s advocacy for treaty fairness, two proved crucial, although historians have largely ignored his efforts in these regards. The first involved gun and hunting rights, an issue on which American diplomats were remarkably sensitive to Japanese feelings. Nor were there any domestic organizations, such as the later National Rifle Association, to lobby congressmen. The second and even more pronounced issue focused on the need for medical quarantine in the face of deadly cholera outbreaks. Notable in both instances was the fact that Bingham’s efforts would face significant, if not united, opposition from other members of the small but feisty diplomatic community in Tokyo. Yet his views were unwavering, and his efforts on behalf of Japan’s viewpoints supported the idea of Japan as a nation of equal standing in international dealings. In truth, the issue of hunting regulations and gun use arose fairly early in the history of nineteenth-century Western residence in Yokohama and had already been a point of considerable tension prior to Bingham’s arrival in Tokyo. Writing home in March 1871, his predecessor as minister, Charles De-Long, had reported on a meeting with other diplomats on the issue of game laws in Japan. Japanese officials had complained about the manner in which foreigners had casually come to discharge their firearms in Japan and wished [End Page 59] to prohibit such practices on temple grounds and burial sites. Moreover, they objected to the carrying of guns in cities. DeLong, a product of frontier California and Nevada in the late 1850s and early 1860s, might have been expected to reject such ideas out of hand, especially since he himself was known at times to carry a weapon.4 Yet his response reflected a belief that such objections provided a good example of the kinds of questions “that almost daily arise for some legislation for the government of our people in Japan.”5 To a degree, an armed population of foreigners may have stemmed from the rash of assassinations and attacks about which every foreign resident of Japan was familiar, episodes largely from the early years of Japan’s “opening.” They had been especially concentrated in the years 1859–62, when assassins had felled even the popular Japanophile Dutch interpreter at...

Research Trend of Schools in Areas of High-density of Foreign Population in Japan

Research Trend of Schools in Areas of High-density of Foreign Population in Japan

The Linguistic and Cultural Atlas of Immigration: Multidisciplinary Research for Spanish Classrooms

AbstractThis study presents a model for researching the integration of the immigrant population in educational contexts based on a multidisciplinary approach.The Linguistic and Cultural Atlas of Immigration(ALCI) is a working tool designed for teachers who must serve students in their classrooms from languages and cultures other than that of instruction. The information the Atlas contains is the product of various research and documentation projects on the demographic variables of the foreign population located in central Spain, the habits and customs of their culture of origin and important aspects of their native, family or heritage language. The ALCI raises awareness of the results of linguistic and cultural research carried out with the collaboration of the immigrant population (students, their families and other participating adults) and teachers, so that they can be leveraged and employed in the classroom.

Unplanned migration flow: the acceptance system response, Perugia.

Background and aim of the work: Since several years, Italy is facing an important flow of immigration. Umbria is not a region of disembarkation of refugees, nevertheless is one of the Italian regions with the highest rate of foreign population compared to the total resident population. Aim of this paper is to collect data on migrants and refugees’ health care services access, focusing on migrants’ characteristics arrived and living in Umbria. Methods: We conducted a retrospective cohort study at the Local Health Unit Umbria of Perugia, Italy. Descriptive analysis was performed in order to identify the characteristics of the migrants living in Perugia area. Data analysis was performed using Excel® software. All frequencies are expressed as percentage. Results: Between 2015-2017, 2,688 migrants came to Umbria Region. The mean age is 23.6 years, almost all are male, and however the majority of female comes from Nigeria. Only 25.5% of migrants durably sojourned in Umbria Region, and only half of them are residents and received the assignment of general practitioner. Conclusions: Unplanned migration may cause an abrupt rupture of the social-cultural supports that sustain both psychological and physical well-being. Regional Health Service should collect data on migrants and refugees’ health and their health care services access, in order to offer an efficient and appropriate regional health system. (www.actabiomedica.it)

Turning points in migrants’ labour market integration in Europe and benefit spillovers for Romania and Serbia: the role of socio-psychological credentials

In this article we develop a two-fold analysis which captures the economic and socio-psychological coordinates in migrants’ labour market integration into ten EU countries (EU-10), mostly targeted by immigrants (namely: Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Austria, Sweden, Italy and Spain). The focus is on revealing the importance of socio-psychological credentials for an active labour market participation of immigrants, aiming to extrapolate factors (timespan 2000-2019), which can foster or complicate similar process in the future. Beside total immigration flows, we particularly entail the benefit spillovers for Serbia and Romania in their migration challenges towards EU-10. A set of methods and macro-econometric models, based on spatial analysis, crosssectional analysis and structural equations modelling, was applied on the balanced panel formed by EU-10. The results highlight that an increased participation in society, community and improved living standards satisfaction (subjective wellbeing) positively reverberate on migrant integration into host economies since it tends to upsize the employment rate of the foreign population. The opposite, a negative impact is induced by social exclusion and reduced job security, while material deprivation also significantly diminishes the employment opportunities of foreign population and their active labour market integration.

STATE ETHNOPOLITICS OF THE ZUNR PERIOD

The purpose of the article is to analyze and generalize the features and trends of the ethnonational policy of the ZUNR government in the conditions of the liberation struggle of 1918-1919. The main activities of the Ukrainian authorities to ensure the rights and freedoms of the foreign ethnic population are investigated. The legal basis of state ethnopolitics is analyzed. The attitude of national minorities to the construction of the Ukrainian state is determined. The prerequisites and the process of attracting representatives of the foreign ethnic population to practical activities for the development of Ukrainian statehood are investigated, the mechanism of national representation in government bodies is clarified, the structure and principles of their functioning are analyzed. It is summed up that the ethnopolitics of the ZUNR leadership was democratic, but the characteristic feature of the outlined chronotope was the difficult conditions caused by the aggression on the part of Poland. Therefore, many events of the Ukrainian government often remained declarative due to the impossibility of their implementation. Involvement of the foreign population to participate in the representative and executive structures of the Ukrainian government was not only an integral part of its ethno-national policy, but also an important factor in the development of the state. But national minorities, primarily Jews and Germans, showed a certain inconsistency and respecting neutrality in the Polish-Ukrainian war, significantly limited their participation in state processes.

Migrants’ Integration on the European Labor Market: A Spatial Bootstrap, SEM and Network Approach

This study is set out to identify feasible ways for immigrants’ integration into the major ten host countries within the European Union (EU-10) and increased labor market performance. Eurostat, OECD, and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) official data was mainly used to capture essential international migration indicators (for both dimensions—economic and humanitarian), along with education, socio-economic development and labor market credentials, as key variables for immigrants’ integration into EU-10, compiled for 2000–2017. In this respect, spatial analyses, bootstrap estimations, structural equations (SEM), and Gaussian graphical models (GGM) are applied, to better grasp migrants’ labor market outcomes. Significant positive consequences reflected through a reduction in the unemployment rate of the foreign population are generated by active labor market policies, jointly with an enhancement in the attainment for secondary education, and welfare advances. The opposite, a rise in income inequalities has negative effects, while additional support for R&D activities deployed within the business sector is required to entail migrants’ labor market performance. The passive policies need to be redesigned and tailored to significantly downsize the foreign unemployment, since these are currently acting like a disincentive for an active participation of migrants on the European labor market, thus confining their integration.

Consistent Approach to Assess the Comfort of Living in the Northern and Arctic Areas

The numerous publications of the Soviet and post-Soviet periods are devoted to the consequences of the unfavourable impact of natural and climatic conditions on the health and life activity of both the indigenous and incoming population, especially in the areas of new industrial development. However, the issues of an integrated assessment of natural and climatic conditions in terms of their influence on the comfort of living remain insufficiently studied. The purpose of this study is to develop a consistent approach to assessing the degree of the comfort of living in the northern regions with the help of an integrated indicator, as well as to test this approach on the example of the territory of the Ural North. The study is based on the hypothesis that natural conditions are one of the main factors affecting the level of foreign population and increasing the cost of infrastructure facilities construction and ongoing production activities in the North. The article analyzes the state of methodological support for the assessment of natural conditions and the comfort of living, proposed by the representatives of various scientific fields — by economists, sociologists, demographers, geographers, ecologists, physicians, etc. We have proposed the basic principles and factors for determining the comfort of living in terms of climatic, socio-economic, medico-demographic and ecological approaches. By means of the empirical analysis, we have justified the methodological approach to assessing the comfort of living in the northern territories on the example of the areas near to the Ural mountains. We have proposed a set of indicators, which allow to adequately reflect the degree of comfort of living, and a calculation formula for its scoring. In the natural climatic zoning of the territory, we took into account zonal and azonal factors. The results of the assessment of the comfort of natural conditions are necessary to address a number of issues. Firstly, these results are needed to define a degree of comfort of human settlements conditions. Secondly, the natural conditions assessment is important for identifying the features of immigrants’ adaptation. Thirdly, the results of this assessment will contribute to establish opportunities for the formation of resident population from incoming population. And last, the assessment of the comfort of natural conditions is necessary to study the environmental sustainability to man-made activities, etc.

Inmigración en Berisso (Argentina, 1909-2010). Caracterización, distribución y segregación espacial.

A partir de fuentes secundarias provenientes del campo historiográfico y datos estadísticos tomados de distintas bases censales, en este artículo analizo las dinámicas migratorias que caracterizaron a la ciudad de Berisso (Argentina) a lo largo de todo un siglo (1909-2010). Dentro de este marco general el artículo posee dos objetivos específicos. Al no haber encontrado investigaciones que describan a la población extranjera de Berisso luego del censo de 1980, el primer objetivo específico es caracterizar demográficamente a dicha población mediante cuatro variables: continente y país de origen, sexo y edad. A partir de los Censos Nacionales de Población de los años 1991, 2001 y 2010 (INDEC) mostraré -entre otros datos- el descenso en la cantidad de inmigrantes europeos que viven en la ciudad, el envejecimiento de esa población, el aumento de los inmigrantes americanos y su creciente tasa de feminización. Finalmente me centraré en el censo del año 2010 para georreferenciar a la población extranjera de Berisso. Con esto me propongo, como segundo objetivo específico, analizar su segregación espacial: mientras los inmigrantes europeos viven (mayoritariamente) en el centro de la ciudad, los inmigrantes latinoamericanos se encuentran radicados (mayoritariamente) en su periferia sur.

UNaccountable: A Reply to Rosa Freedman

Sexual abuse is a very human stain that has marked many organizations that define themselves through virtue, including the church, schools, scouting organizations and other humanitarian organizations. The exposure of sexual abuse by United Nations (UN) peacekeepers reveals behaviour that is undoubtedly unconscionable, but surely not inconceivable. While the UN was constructed from plans to deliver peace, security, development and human rights, the organization was inescapably hewn from the crooked timber of humanity. The UN is ultimately a creature of the world upon which it seeks to act. The reality of sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers has been destructive of the organization’s legitimacy, yet so is any fantasy about the imagined purity of the organization and its personnel. Scholarly attention to the development of an accountability framework for UN peacekeeping is critical so as to avoid not only overly romantic, but also overly cynical, readings of the nature of the organization. Rosa Freedman’s article calls for a ‘new approach to accountability’ in response to sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers. Her focus is on accountability as a process rather than a value. Freedman highlights the importance of a victim-centred approach, arguing for the need to place relevant aspects of criminal justice, truth and reconciliation mechanisms, human rights law and political processes at the heart of accountability responses. In this short article, my focus will be on the currency, rather than the metal, of the accountability coin, giving regard to the value or values we expect accountability to serve in this setting rather than to its processes. It is hoped that this will provide an interesting foundation to support, but also to critique, elements of Freedman’s discussion. History tells that the humanitarian nature of an institution or authority is no antidote to misdeed. Certainly for the countries in which the highest number of UN sexual abuse allegations has been recorded (Haiti, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan), the history of humanitarianism is also a history of paternalism. Both ‘isms’ involve ‘the act of interfering in the lives of others, often without their permission, on the grounds that such interventions are for their own good’.1 In order to avoid one sliding into the other, humanitarians must navigate a delicate balance between care and control. Michael Barnett has tracked the history of humanitarianism, drawing chilling comparisons between the ‘civilizing mission’ of empire and liberal humanitarianism.2 Of course, there is also a key normative distinction between these projects. To effectively distinguish itself from imperial governance, humanitarian governance must stake its legitimacy on purpose: to act for the benefit of the ruled rather than of the rulers. The legitimacy of humanitarian governance is dependent on the idea that humanitarian agencies act not out of self-interest but, rather, as a public trustee and for the benefit of the ruled. At the heart of the relationship, therefore, is trust. In the literature responding to the problem of sexual violence by UN peacekeepers, scholars have focused on ‘shame’, ‘danger’ and even ‘hope’.3 My argument is that ‘trust’, at least from an institutional perspective, is the key institutional value that is betrayed by reported (and unreported) cases of sexual abuse by UN peacekeepers and is the value that accountability processes must seek to restore. Of course, the concept of trust is context specific and can have interpersonal, financial and political manifestations and implications.4 It also has legal relevance. I argue that trust is foundational to our understanding of the legal authority exercised by UN peacekeepers. In legal terms, we can classify the relationship between UN peacekeepers and the foreign populations over which they exercise authority in the nature of a fiduciary relationship. Because the fiduciary relationship is legal in nature, it generates legal duties, including the duty upon the UN to account to those over whom it exercises control.

Spatial Distribution of Foreign Population and Korean community in Australia - Concentration and dispersion grounded on the Industrial Structure -

Spatial Distribution of Foreign Population and Korean community in Australia - Concentration and dispersion grounded on the Industrial Structure -