Foreign Language Learning Research Articles

Strategic use of machine translation

Abstract The development of generative artificial intelligence (AI) and its associated tools has revolutionised the learning and use of foreign languages (L2). One such tool is machine translation (MT), which has become increasingly popular among university students worldwide, spurring research on MT use in L2 writing. However, previous research has primarily focused on the writing products of intermediate or advanced L2 learners, neglecting the writing process with MT of students with limited L2 proficiency. Therefore, this case study aimed to qualitatively explore how the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) A2 university students employ strategies for L2 writing with MT and how their strategies change after strategy instruction. Seven participants completed writing tasks on a PC before, immediately after, and four weeks after three one-hour out-of-class instruction sessions based on the Strategic Content Learning (SCL) approach. Their writing process was screen-recorded, followed by stimulated recall interviews to elicit their strategies, which were coded and categorised using a framework by O’Malley and Chamot (1990). The results showed an increase in students’ elaborate use of strategies after instruction. In particular, strategy clusters were observed for all participants, demonstrating their cognitive engagement in the writing process. Furthermore, first-language (L1)-related strategies were used more frequently post-instruction, indicating learners’ efforts to create translation-friendly L1 input for MT. The findings suggest that teaching MT-use strategies is crucial to fostering learners’ active engagement in the L2 writing process in a technology-enhanced learning environment.

Stage directions: Evidence-based professional development in improvisational drama for foreign language teachers

A significant body of research supports the affective benefits of drama activities in foreign language (FL) learning, yet little is known about how to train teachers to implement such activities. In this study, we tested a professional development program (PDP) aimed at galvanizing FL teachers to integrate improvisational drama techniques (IDTs) into their repertoire. IDTs are defined here as activities which place pupils in a fictional situation and stimulate spoken interaction. Nineteen Dutch secondary school FL teachers participated in the PDP. The goal of this research was to discover the extent to which (1) teachers implement IDTs according to the study’s definition, (2) the techniques become integrated into the teacher’s repertoire, and (3) teachers develop the self-efficacy to execute IDTs. All three areas were met with positive results as evidenced through questionnaires, logbooks, observations and interviews. Teachers demonstrated that they could inspire the fictional artistry of drama while simultaneously stimulating FL speaking. Frequency of implementation also increased after the training. Self-efficacy furthermore improved widely, both in implementing IDTs and speaking activities in general.

A thesaurus in focus: A media review of https://www.thesaurus.com/

Many applications, software, websites, and online dictionaries have been introduced thanks to the advent of computer- and mobile-assisted technologies. Recent technological advancements have resulted in more targeted apps (e.g., BoldVoice for pronunciation) or reference tools (Etymonline.com for an etymology dictionary) for language learning and practice. One such tool is Thesaurus.com, an online thesaurus freely accessible through mobile devices and computers. Given the significance of synonyms and antonyms for vocabulary learning and the problems English as a foreign language learners have with these lexical subfields, this media review evaluated the aforementioned online thesaurus. The results indicated potential pedagogical opportunities and several areas of improvement. The review concludes with suggestions for further research to corroborate the findings.

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Interactive M-Learning in Fostering EFL Vocabulary for Enhanced Speaking Proficiency

This study aims to assess the impact of interactive vocabulary learning via WhatsApp on the speaking proficiency of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Saudi Arabia. Drawing on Krashen’s input Hypothesis and Cognitive Theories of Multimedia Learning, the research employs a quantitative approach involving sixty EFL learners from an English language foundation program. Two pre-formed elementary-level groups were randomly assigned as control and experimental groups. The findings indicate that the intervention group showed significant improvements in both vocabulary and speaking tests. To maximize WhatsApp’s effectiveness, it is recommended that content be dynamically designed to accommodate diverse learners, include both genders in future studies, and incorporate video clips and additional images to enhance vocabulary learning and speaking proficiency, with careful planning of vocabulary activities being crucial.

What is Most and Least Enjoyable in the EFL Classroom? A Large-scale Inductive Qualitative Study

The growing emphasis on learner well-being and the flourishing of positive psychology in foreign language (FL) education have caused a recent upsurge of research into enjoyment in FL learning. However, most existing studies are quantitative in nature and many focus on tertiary-level/adult learners. Featuring an inductive qualitative design, the current study investigated what 486 grade 7 English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners perceived to be most and least enjoyable in class in the context of Hong Kong. In total, 1031 aspect responses together with 1086 reasons were collated. The responses were categorized into 36 groups, leading to the emergence of five themes (from most to least popular): activities, classroom characteristics, teachers, students, and materials. The most commonly mentioned areas of highest enjoyment were use of multimedia and speaking-related activities, while those of least enjoyment were class exercises and assessments. Teacher-centred instruction was a popular category in both aspects of enjoyment. Activities accounted for close to 90% of the responses, in both the most and least enjoyable categories. This is noteworthy as activities are not very clearly represented in many existing FL classroom enjoyment scales, hence suggesting a need to reconceptualize what enjoyment in the FL classroom means for learners from their perspectives.

A Systematic Review of Motivational Factors in Developing Speaking Skills Among Indonesian EFL Learners

This systematic review aims to identify the key motivational factors that influence the development of speaking skills among Indonesian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, five studies were selected for in-depth analysis. The methodology involved the identification, screening, and thematic analysis of research focusing on motivational factors affecting speaking proficiency. The results indicate that both internal factors—such as self-confidence, personal satisfaction, and integrative motivation—and external factors—including teacher support, classroom atmosphere, task structure, and instructional media—play crucial roles in enhancing learners’ motivation to participate in speaking activities. The novelty of this study lies in its focus on the Indonesian EFL context, offering a comprehensive overview of how these motivational factors intersect in this specific educational setting. The study contributes to the field by providing practical recommendations for educators, suggesting that a balanced focus on internal drives and supportive external environments is essential for improving speaking proficiency among Indonesian EFL learners. This review thus highlights the importance of addressing both personal and environmental factors to foster greater participation and confidence in speaking activities.

An Analysis of Common Errors Made by Grade 7 Students in Writing English Paragraphs at a Secondary School in Hanoi, Vietnam

Error analysis is a technique that identifies and classifies the inappropriate forms that foreign language learners produce (Crystal, 1987), and it is considered a useful tool for helping them improve their writing skills. The study investigated the secondary students' common errors in writing English paragraphs. During the first term of the school year 2023-2024, 43 grade 7 students from a secondary school in Hanoi participated in a descriptive quantitative research project. The participants were asked to complete three writing tests at three different times to generate their written errors based on Ferris’ (2014) model of error analysis. The findings indicate that the types of errors that grade 7 students made are lexical errors, syntactic errors, morphological errors, orthographical errors, and paragraph errors. Lexical, syntactic, and orthographical errors are greatly committed by the students. Accordingly, it comes to the conclusion that secondary students in general and 7th graders in particular struggle with writing English paragraphs. The results of the research would also give the secondary teachers of English some implications, such as focusing on grammatical patterns, emphasizing irregular instances, offering adequate practice opportunities, implementing explicit instructions, and engaging students in interactive exercises, visual aids, collaborative activities, authentic materials, etc. to mitigate the students' written errors.

I am all ears: listening exams with AI and its traces on foreign language learners’ mindsets, self-competence, resilience, and listening improvement

I am all ears: listening exams with AI and its traces on foreign language learners’ mindsets, self-competence, resilience, and listening improvement

Chinese university EFL learners’ essay revision and perceptions of the feedback

Revising is an important part of the writing process, especially when writing in a foreign language (FL). FL learners who routinely revise inadequacies in their texts after receiving feedback tend to develop better writing skills than those who do not (Boubekeur, 2015). To help FL learners achieve a desirable revision quality in writing, providing various types of feedback about their writing is of great importance (Lee, 2017). However, as providing detailed and high-quality writing feedback to individual students requires a considerable amount of time and effort on FL teachers, it is not always practical in FL instructions (Myer et al., 2023). In particular, in the context of College English teaching in China, where an English teacher normally teaches 60 to 80 learners, it is not always feasible for English teachers to provide writing feedback to every student on a regular basis. The recent development of generative artificial intelligence (GenAI) such as ChatGPT may either supplement or complement teacher feedback in helping Chinese learners of English as a FL (EFL) revise their English writing (Escalante et al., 2023). The present study aimed to compare: 1) the effect of teacher versus ChatGPT feedback on Chinese university EFL learners’ English essay revision; and 2) Chinese university EFL learners’ perceptions of teacher versus ChatGPT feedback in terms of usefulness and ease of use. A quasi-experiment was conducted among 73 Chinese university EFL learners. The students came from two intact College English classes (n=36 and n=37 respectively) taught by the same English teacher. A pre-test of essay writing task found that the two classes did not differ on English writing proficiency (F(1, 71)=0.17, p=.68, ?2=.05). One class received teacher feedback whereas the other class received ChatGPT feedback on narrative essay writing. Students were required to revise their essays using the feedback they received during one English class. Upon completion of the essay revision, they were surveyed about their perceptions of the usefulness and ease of use of the feedback by filling out a Likert-scale questionnaire. The results of one-way ANOVAs showed that students who received ChatGPT feedback obtained significantly higher scores of their revision than their peers who received teacher feedback (F(1, 71)=8.74, p<.01, ?2=.11). However, students in the teacher feedback class perceived that the feedback was more useful (F(1, 71)=6.50, p<.05, ?2=.08) and easier to use (F(1, 71)=14.36, p<.01, ?2=.17) than those in the ChatGPT feedback class. To encourage students to use ChatGPT feedback in helping them revise their English writing, it is important to foster positive perceptions of the ChatGPT feedback. Some useful strategies may include: 1) teacher modelling how to use ChatGPT feedback for students, to make students familiar with the format of ChatGPT feedback, which may enhance students’ positive perceptions of ease of use. 2) guiding students to explore different aspects that ChatGPT feedback can cover, which may foster students’ positive perceptions of the usefulness of ChatGPT feedback. The present study only adopts quantitative methods, future research may use semi-structured interviews to provide a rich description of Chinese EFL learners’ experience of using teacher and ChatGPT feedback in their English essay writing.

Enhancing EFL learners’ engagement in situational language skills through clustered digital materials

The tertiary education environment requires students learning English to acquire and develop oral and speaking competencies since they are expected to use communication skills in diverse contexts that serve various purposes. This study investigates the efficacy of clustered digital materials, including TED Talks, digital posters, short films, and newspaper cartoons, in enhancing the English-speaking proficiency of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in an Omani higher learning institution. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the study analyzes data from 37 undergraduate EFL students in digital material-aided situational English classes using statistical tests and qualitative descriptions. Data were collected from participants’ questionnaire responses, semi-structured interviews, and teacher notes. The study reveals that participants preferred incorporating digital materials that required high metacognitive skills and enhanced critical thinking as confirmed by a paired-sample t-test (p < 0.05). Results also demonstrate that participants rated posters as the most desirable digital material, improving speaking and motivating interaction. The findings of the study have important implications for teachers to adopt unconventional pedagogic strategies for coaching, scaffolding, and supporting students while implementing digital materials in conversation classes. This result implies that clustering digital materials in planning pedagogic situational English activities provides language learners with diverse opportunities to collaboratively practice speaking and improve oral and communication competencies.

Teacher Support and Student Engagement in the Conduct of Blended Learning Instruction for English as A Foreign Language

With the deep integration of information technology and education, blended learning has emerged as a new paradigm in higher education, combining the strengths of both online and offline learning environments. This approach allows English as Foreign Language (EFL) learners, particularly in the Chinese context, to engage in flexible and continuous learning beyond traditional classroom settings, thereby fostering greater student initiative and self-directed learning. Understanding the impact of teacher support on student engagement within this blended learning framework is crucial for optimizing educational outcomes. This study employed a quantitative descriptive comparative and correlational research design to examine the relationship between various forms of teacher support—instructional, emotional, feedback, and interpersonal—and student engagement among 307 Chinese EFL learners in a blended learning environment. The findings reveal that all forms of teacher support were perceived as high, with feedback provision ranking highest. Similarly, student engagement was also rated highly across behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social domains. The Pearson correlation coefficient between teacher support and student engagement was found to be 0.75, indicating a significant positive relationship. Based on these findings, a program aimed at enhancing teacher support to further improve student engagement in blended learning environments was developed and recommended.

Facilitating Students' Cognitive Engagement in Online Asynchronous Discussion Within a Remote English Foreign Language Learning Environment

This study examined the cognitive presence of students in an asynchronous online discussion in the Second Language Acquisition (SLA) course. The course combined synchronous meetings through Zoom sessions to support student participation in asynchronous discussions. The study involved a cohort of 36 participants from the two remote extended campuses of Pattimura University in Maluku. Through content analysis, two key aspects were examined: (1) student participation rates, and (2) the extent of students’ cognitive presence within the discussions. The content analysis findings revealed that although each student made a minimum of two contributions per topic during online asynchronous discussions, they exhibited a moderately high level of cognition, incorporating problem recognition, exploration, integration, and solution, not only in individual messages but also in the overall exchange of information within the discussion thread. These findings suggest that a combination of synchronous meetings through Zoom sessions, tailored prompts, feedback, and social interactions enhances students' active engagement and utilization of cognitive skills in online asynchronous discussions. Keywords: online asynchronous discussion, English foreign language learning, cognitive presence

Heutagogical-based mobile social media space

This concise paper aims to propose a framework for enhancing intercultural communication competencies among Chinese as foreign language (CFL) learners using Heutagogical-based Mobile Social Media spaces. Integrating qualitative and quantitative data analysis with Activity Theory (AT) and the Design for Transformative Mobile Learning (DTML) framework, this study seeks to develop a potentially effective educational approach. By leveraging mobile social media, the envisioned framework intends to support autonomous learning and foster intercultural competencies among CFL learners.

Investigating the impact of online learning platforms on student engagement and learning outcomes

With the advent of new technologies such as virtual reality (VR), educators have shown interest in using them to enhance the online learning experience. To investigate the impact of VR on students' foreign language learning outcomes and engagement, a longitudinal comparative study was conducted. This study focused on learning small talk skills with two groups, an experimental group using VR and a comparison group using Zoom. Both groups met weekly to discuss small talk skills and bonding strategies in groups and practiced small talk in pairs. The student interactions were recorded on both platforms and graded by two raters at three points during the course. Additionally, students completed an engagement survey and participated in focus group interviews. Results showed that both groups improved their small talk skills over time with no significant difference in learning gains and engagement. Participants were divided into VR enthusiasts, who appreciated the enhanced sense of presence and identity through avatars, and VR sceptics, who doubted the value and usability of VR. To continue this project, the researchers aim to further leverage the benefits of VR in international contexts to promote cross-cultural communication.

Exploring the Relationship Between Language competence and Intercultural Communicative Competence Among English as a Foreign language Learners: A Mixed-Methods Study

This study explores the relationship between language competence and intercultural communicative competence (ICC) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners through a mixed-methods approach. A sample of 196 Chinese EFL learners was divided into three proficiency groups (low, intermediate, and high), with data collected through Likert-scale questionnaires and semi-structured interviews involving 16 participants. Quantitative analysis revealed that higher language proficiency is linked to improved overall ICC scores and its specific dimensions. The Kruskal-Wallis H test confirmed significant differences in overall ICC, attitude, and skill across proficiency levels, with attitude showing the strongest effect. Spearman's correlation analysis demonstrated small but significant positive correlations between English proficiency and overall ICC, attitude, and skill. Qualitative findings further enriched the quantitative results, emphasizing the foundational and catalytic role of language competence in enhancing ICC and its dimensions. However, participants acknowledged that language competence alone is insufficient for fully successful intercultural interactions. This study expands Byram’s model by offering detailed insights into the intricate relationship between language competence and various ICC dimensions. The study recommends that to fully cultivate ICC, it is essential to integrate the development of language competence into instructional practices.

Is social interaction a catalyst for digital environments? Exploring affordances of synchronous delivery in online CLIL

ABSTRACT Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has emerged as a pedagogical approach integrating foreign language learning with subject content. Nevertheless, its foray into the online environment, where courses are commonly delivered in two modes: asynchronous and synchronous, remains unexplored. By integrating synchronous delivery into an asynchronous-only online CLIL course, this study aims to probe how synchronous delivery affects students’ learning performances (learning behaviors and outcomes), and investigate learners’ perspectives on synchronous delivery as affordances for enhancing these performances. The study involved 969 learners and two teachers, with data collected from six sources for triangulation: tracking data from social media chat logs, website learning records, course scores, teachers’ reflective narratives, observation of synchronous learning, and student interviews. The findings unveil the effectiveness of synchronous delivery in promoting learning performances, evident in students’ proactive time management and interactive behaviors, as well as elevated learning outcomes. Three affordances – pedagogical, technological, and social – are offered by synchronous delivery for promoting learning performances. Particularly noteworthy are the social affordances, which significantly enhance learning behaviors and outcomes by fostering efficient interactions, cordial interpersonal relationships, and a learning community.

L2 Korean learners’ pragmalinguistic features

Abstract This study investigates the pragmalinguistic features of Korean as a Foreign Language (KFL) learners’ request speech acts in power-asymmetrical situations, focusing on interactions with social superiors. Through a discourse completion test (DCT), 31 KFL students and 12 Korean native speakers (KNS) were analyzed using a coding system which is developed based on the Cross-Cultural Speech Act Realization Project (CCSARP) (Blum-Kulka et al. 1989). Despite acquiring basic linguistic elements, KFL learners struggle to apply them effectively, particularly in nuanced social contexts. The findings underscore the necessity of explicit instruction on the pragmalinguistic functions of grammatical forms to bridge the gap between classroom learning and real-world language use. This study contributes valuable insights into the intercultural pragmatics of KFL learners, addressing gaps in the literature regarding the detailed analysis of learners’ language use in request speech acts, especially in situations involving social superiors. The pedagogical implications emphasize the need for enhanced instruction in KFL pragmatics to cultivate learners’ pragmatic awareness.

Investigating the Effect of Role-Play Activity With GenAI Agent on EFL Students’ Speaking Performance

Role-play activities are considered a useful instructional design in enhancing the speaking performance of foreign language learners. However, in the traditional classroom context, learners may not readily have access to interlocutors for role-play activities. In this study, we proposed a designed method that integrated the GenAI agent into role-play activities and conducted a quasi-experiment at a Chinese university. A total of 53 Chinese students in an English course were assigned to an experimental group ( n = 29) that engaged in role-playing with a GenAI agent and a control group ( n = 24) that engaged in role-playing with their class peers. The results showed role-play activities with GenAI could facilitate students’ speaking performance, and one-way ANCOVA showed there was no significant difference in speaking performance improvement when compared with traditional role-play activities with peers. Moreover, the paired-sample Wilcoxon test showed that the treatment students had significant intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy improvement, which were higher than the control group. The findings provide important implications for the design and implementation of GenAI-integrated role-play activities for foreign language speaking learning.

The Effect of Using DeepL on Improving Students' Writing Vocabulary

Abstract: As artificial intelligence technologies increasingly integrate into education, neural translation machines, such as Google Translate and DeepL, are gradually becoming an important tool for enhancing the effectiveness of foreign language learning. These technologies not only improve the efficiency of the learning experience but also address the limitations of traditional vocabulary acquisition methods. While research has examined DeepL's translation quality, there is limited focus on Spanish learners' attitudes and experiences with DeepL during the writing process, particularly regarding its impact on vocabulary enhancement and student feedback. This paper aims to investigate Chinese university students' perceptions of using DeepL to improve their Spanish writing vocabulary. The method used in this research was a descriptive quantitative technique. 60 undergraduate Spanish students completed a questionnaire. The results of this research showed that, Chinese undergraduate Spanish language students believe that the use of DeepL has a good effect on improving their writing vocabulary in general, but there are still some problems of the accuracy. Another conclusion worth emphasizing is that the use of DeepL to enrich the vocabulary of articles does not have a direct and strong connection with the improvement of the user's own vocabulary.

Exploring The Impact and Challenges of Chatgpt on Future Primary and Secondary Education from The Perspective of Current Normal Students

Nowadays, the application of ChatGPT has received widespread attention, but there are still shortcomings at the education level. This article explores the impact and challenges of ChatGPT on future primary and secondary education from the perspective of current normal school students through a survey questionnaire method. The analysis shows that ChatGPT has penetrated the lives of normal students as a commonly used tool. Most respondents believe that ChatGPT will have a positive impact on primary and secondary education. However, regarding the educational evaluation of ChatGPT and the dependence of students on ChatGPT, respondents expressed deep concerns. Based on this, this article suggests that teachers should check the generated content and then integrate it into their curriculum design and use ChatGPT to automatically generate multi-form teaching resources. Teachers can use ChatGPT as a language companion for students' foreign language learning, but they must grasp the time for students to interact with artificial intelligence. Teachers should guide students in the use of ChatGPT, teach students to face the generated content, think from different angles, and form critical thinking. Teachers should educate students on ethics in the teaching process, emphasizing the importance of academic integrity, and at the same time, enriching the ways of evaluating students to ensure the fairness of the examination.