Foreign Churches Research Articles

Illegal Church Document from the Era of Persecution (1920–1930 of the 20th Century)

The research of the history of the Russian Orthodox Church of the 20th century is largely based on the study of documents of that era drawn up in the church milieu. Since all kinds of church publications were prohibited, the reproduction of documents in private — by copying or retyping — gained ground in Russia of the 1920s and 1930s. These documents played the role of the church press — they introduced the events of church life, expressed beliefs in the rightness of the author or a group of like-minded people, unmasked ideological opponents, and also served to communicate with foreign church figures. The reproduction of such documents, in case of their discovery by authorities, could endanger not only the authors thereof and the persons mentioned therein, but also ordinary copyists and put them all to punitive measures such as purge. Thanks to the ascetics who preserved them, these documents remain the most important information sources in the field of history of the Russian Orthodox Church in the era of persecution. The article lists the documents that were taken abroad — letters of Bishop Damaskin (Cedric), the collection of church documents “The Case of Metropolitan Sergius”. Moreover, it analyzes documents both originating from the clerical office of Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky) and generated by church figures opposed to Deputy Patriarchal Locum Tenens. A large number of documents was drawn up by Mikhail Novosyolov himself and the circle of his close associates. Also, the most important documents of that era are the letters of Metropolitan Kirill (Smirnov) and replies of Metropolitan Sergius (Stragorodsky). The article pays special attention to the transfer abroad of the collection of church documents entitled “The Case of Metropolitan Sergius”, the role of the journalist Mikhail Brоndsted (pseudonym: Mikhail Artemyev), who left abroad in 1930, and his articles published abroad on underground literature in the Soviet Union. The problem of the authorship of anonymous sources, the authenticity of documents distributed in the church milieu is also raised here. The Joint State Political Directorate of the Soviet Union actively used church documents found during arrests to persecute believers. Fragments of these documents often became the basis for indictments, as evidence of the accused’s anti-Soviet activity. The article also mentions the role of collectors of church documents during the persecution against the Church — Archpresbyter Michael Polsky, Mikhail Gubonin, Metropolitan Manuel (Lemeshevsky).

Особенности организационной жизни Смоленской и Дорогобужской епархии при епископе Иннокентии (Сокале) (1959–1964 гг.)

This article deals with the person of Bishop Innokentiy (Sokal) of Smolensk and Dorogobuzh and with the organizational specifics of life at the Diocese in 1959–1964, which was the period of an antireligious campaign characterized as a war against the religion and the believers. Bishop Innokentiy’s return migration played a substantial role in his service. The hierarch’s relations with the foreign church circles of Yugoslavia where he had served as a priest for 30 years forced the authorized agent of the Smolensk Oblast Board for the Affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church at the USSR Council of Ministers to be courteous and make considerable concessions to the new head of the Diocese of Smolensk. At the time Bishop Innokentiy was appointed diocesan archbishop, the Diocese of Smolensk had 54 working churches and 59 registered clerks. The organizational life of the Diocese of that period was at the peak of its prosperity, which was accounted for the high administrative status of Bishop Innokentiy’s predecessor, Bishop Mikhail (Tchub), as well as the active position of the latter. Things started to get steadily worse in 1959, which was accounted for the growing pressure on the Russian Orthodox Church from the state and Bishop Innokentiy becoming less active. In 1964, which was the last year of Bishop Innokentiy being the head of the Diocese of Smo-lensk, the diocesan clergy consisted of 39 priests and 5 deacons and had 38 registered com-munities of the Russian Orthodox Church. In 1959–1964, the number of clerks at the Diocese of Smolensk and Dorogobuzh decreased by 29%, and the number of churches got reduced by 30%.

The dynamics of intra-Orthodox relations in Ukraine in the situation of the russian-Ukrainian war

The article examines the changes in the Orthodox world caused by Russia’s full-scale military invasion of Ukraine. Considerable attention is paid to the geographical location of the Ukrainian state at the crossroads of East and West, which determines the specificity of geopolitical and religious processes in the region. Attention is focused on the historical context of the development of Ukrainian Orthodoxy, the meaning of the concept of “canonical territory”, the attitude of former empires to lost territories is considered; prospects for further dialogue between Ukrainian Orthodox churches are outlined. The process of formation of the national mentality of Ukrainians and thus the formation of a single political and spiritual space, the features of which are a reflection of the dominant national type, is considered. The geopolitical confrontation between Russia and the Western world, whose technological parity stimulates ideological confrontation, and which is often broadcast by Russia through religious narratives, is highlighted. The study compares the position and perception of the russian federation regarding the spiritual environment of Ukraine with the real self-perception of the Ukrainian clergy and believers. The rhetoric of the highest church leadership of Russia at the beginning of the military intervention, as well as the reaction of representatives of the local church and flock to it, is critically evaluated. Attention is paid to the reaction of foreign churches to the events in Ukraine. The problem of the transition of Ukrainian dioceses under the jurisdiction of the Russian Orthodox Church in the occupied territories is highlighted. The materials of the article are aimed at forming a comprehensive idea of the recent history of Ukraine and its Church.

Історична наука про угодовство та нонконформізм Руської православної церкви в період утисків 1950-1960 рр.

The work aims to analyze the publications on the relationship between the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC) and the authorities in the USSR in 1950-1960; to investigate the issues of agreement and adaptation of the Church, manifestations of nonconformism and opposition, protection of the interests of the faithful. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, problem-solving, comprehensiveness, systematics, and objectivity. The mentioned principles are implemented through the methods of analysis, synthesis, and generalization, historical-comparative, historical-genetic, historical-typological. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that we conducted a historiographical analysis of the problems of agreement and non-conformity of the ROC in relation to the state. It was found that Soviet and official church authors avoided investigation of the tense situations of the relationship between the government and the Church. Most foreign, dissident, and contemporary Ukrainian and Russian researchers point out the lack of militant actions by the Moscow Patriarchate (MP) in the protection of the rights and interests of the believers from state oppression, accusing it in collaboration with the authorities in the question of closing churches. However, the degree and motives of this collaboration are evaluated differently by researchers. It is widely believed that the Patriarchate, trying to “survive” in the conditions of atheistic politics, to “adapt” to the Soviet state and communist ideology, by forced concessions to the authorities, maintained the structure and social positions of the Church. Conclusions. Most researchers, analyzing the attitude of ROC bishops to the anti-religious policy of party and state bodies, draw attention to the pas-sivity of the Church leadership, adaptation and reconciliation to the actions of the authorities. In the USSR, both the authorities and the MPs pursued the Russification policy, pursuing any manifestations of disagreement with the centralizing great-power imperial policy. The MP not only did not dare to actively protest but also cooperated with the authorities in restricting worship and reducing the religious network. Of course, among the bishops of the Church, there were some feeble manifestations of disagreement with the anti-religious course; but they were isolated, and not supported by senior management. Therefore, it was ordinary believers who resisted the atheistic onslaught the most. Ukrainian authors observe the higher religiosity of the population of the USSR compared to other republics of the USSR and, accordingly, greater resistance to the offensive. The ROC as an institution did not become an opposition force – even at a time when the state was actively restricting its activities, closing churches, and restricting worship. The hi erarchs of the MP at meetings with representatives of foreign churches and delegations assured of freedom of religion in the USSR. However, religion, as an ideology, was still an alternative to communist ideology, to a certain extent a “spiritual opposition.” Currently, the issue of conformism and opposition in the ROC during the period of oppression of the authorities is one of the least studied and promising to study.

Średniowieczne pieczęcie wystawców kościelnych w zasobie archiwum klasztoru Bożego Ciała w Krakowie. Przyczynek do polskich badań sfragistycznych

The article presents the medieval seals of Polish and foreign church exhibitors kept in the archives of the Corpus Christi Monastery of regular canons in Krakow. These seals are a small part of the collection but are nevertheless valuable for many reasons

The history of the Imyaslav polemic in the context of foreign Church journalism

In the history of the holy Mount Athos, there were not so many bright historical events, one of them was the dispute about the Name of God and the Name of Jesus. Having arisen among the Russian monks of Mount Athos in 1912 – 1913, the dispute did not attract the active participation of representatives of other nationalities. One of the features of this phenomenon was that from the very beginning it received a categorically negative definition from the Patriarchate of Constantinople. This definition has not undergone a significant revision among foreign ecclesiastical and secular historians and publicists over the past hundred years. At the same time, in Russia, the topic of the history and essence of imyaslaviya since its appearance and still continues to be debatable. The author of this publication separately examines the position that prevailed among the Greek monks and clergy on Mount Athos in relation to the Imyaslav dispute. It is also noteworthy that both sides (both opponents and supporters of imyaslavy), arguing their polar opposite points of view from the very beginning of the Imyaslavsky discourse, appeal to the same sources – the Holy Scripture and the works of the Holy Fathers of the Church, especially to the theological heritage of Gregory of Nyssa, Basil the Great, Dionysius the Areopagite, Gregory Palamas. However, certain statements are sometimes quoted tendentiously selectively outside the entire context of the source. This is especially true for authors whose works criticize and refute the Imyaslav teaching. Without setting a task to consecrate all aspects of this topic, which in itself is worthy of a separate study, the author of the publication tries to show the general history of the discussion, as well as how objective were the assessments about the Imyaslav teaching itself, expressed from the very beginning of its appearance, and how these assessments influenced the further course of the Imyaslav process as a whole.

Monumentalne kompozycje z łysogórskich płyt ceramicznych w wystroju budowli sakralnych

Ceramic panels produced since 1960 in the “Kamionka” cooperative in Łysa Góra are one of the most versatile materials used for architectural decorations. They made it possible to create small “ceramic accents” as well as large-scale and monumental works. Compositions made of Łysa Góra panels, at first found mainly in secular buildings, started to appear in church architecture from the mid-1960s. The earliest was the cladding on the facade of the Chapel of the Holy Cross in Piaseczno by Krzysztof Henisz in 1965. The article presents realisations found in Polish and foreign churches. Most of the discussed compositions were created in the period when new rules of organisation resulting from the recommendations of the Second Vatican Council were introduced into church interiors. This important theme is also highlighted in the article. The last mentioned work – the altar wall in Harmęże by Anna Praxmayer – was created in the 21st century, just before the definitive demise of the factory in Łysa Góra.

John Foxe's "Rerum in ecclesia gestarum [...] commentarii in Sixteenth Century Polish Translation

This paper is devoted to the Polish translation of John Foxe’s famous Rerum in Ecclesia gestarum on Christian martyrs, authored by a Calvinist writer, printer and composer Cyprian Bazylik. His monumental Historyja o srogim prześladowaniu Kościoła Bożego (1567) was compiled from the works of John Foxe, Jean Crespin and Heinrich Pantaleon, supplemented with Jan van Utenhove’s account of the thrilling odyssey of the members of the London’s Foreign Church led by Jan Łaski. The author aimed at creation of a complete account of the persecuted Church throughout Europe, starting from John Wycliff to 1563. Historyja is the most significant witness of the impact of Foxe’s theological thought and ideas on the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

مسألة الإعفاء الضريبي لأراضي الكنائس الأجنبية في القدس العثمانية

Kudüs, 19. yüzyılda Osmanlı Devleti’ne yönelik emperyalist girişimlerin en belirgin hissedildiği şehirdi. Üç semavi dinin kutsal kabul ettiği Kudüs, bu yüzyılda bir kez daha dünyadaki egemenlik mücadelelerinin sembolik alanlarından biri haline dönüştü. Kudüs’teki egemenlik mücadelesinin başlıca araçlarından biri de Osmanlı vatandaşı olmayan gayrimüslimlerce/ecnebilerce kutsal mekânlara yakın yerlerden alınan arazilere inşa edilen kilise ve manastırlardı. Avrupalı devletler, Osmanlı Devleti üzerindeki politik nüfuzu kullanılarak kilise ve manastırlar inşa ettirdiler. Bu kilise ve manastırlar zaman içinde yine aynı nüfuzu kullanarak başka imtiyazlar da elde etmek istediler. Bu imtiyazların başında kilise ve manastırlara ait arazi ve emlâkin vergiden muaf olması gelmektedir. Çalışmada ecnebi kilise ve manastırlarının bu talepleri ve Osmanlı Devleti’nin bu taleplere karşı tutumu incelenmiştir. Çalışmanın temel kaynakları Osmanlı arşivi ile bu konuda yapılan araştırmalardır.

Formation, Development and Current State of the Armenian Genocide Victims Remembrance Day (Part 1)

The 24th of April is not merely a Memorial Day of the Armenian Genocide victims. It is one of the most important and unique elements of the Armenian identity that unifies all Armenians through invisible links. The Memorial Day has been shaped in the course of many political twists and turns and even a century later the shades of its meaning are still discussed in wide social and professional circles. Observation of the Memorial Day, remembrance of the victims, reminiscences of the Genocide during one day’s event embodies and reflects the current state of the society, i.e. it is the summary of the reality, concepts, policy and propaganda actual at the given moment. The first forms of observation of the memory of the Genocide victims after WW1 both in the Armenian communities existing for centuries and in the newly established ones in Diaspora were the ceremonies of mourning the memory of the Genocide victims. They were organized first of all for remembering the Genocide victims in the form of mourning. However, during such ceremonies people bemoaned their dearest not in private but collectively mourned the loss of hundreds of thousands. Psychologically collective mourning ceremonies to some extent relieved the feeling of loss. Alongside, they emphasized the necessity of supporting the orphans, widows and generally those in need as a direct consequence of the Genocide by means of creative work, and not weeping. Thus, the mourning ceremony played the role of a specific factor of ethnic consolidation that demonstrated the unity of Armenians even if it was just mourning. Unity was demonstrated also through the shutdown of Armenian schools, institutions and shops on Memory Day. There were certain commonalities in the structure of the mourning ceremonies: the main actors were the clergy (service for the dead at the church, sometimes a procession to the cemetery, classic and Armenian spiritual music and chants). As a rule, the representatives of other Christian Churches were also invited thus stressing the Christian origin of the victims as one of the reasons of mass slaughter. The next part of these ceremonies consisted of reciting the works of victimized writers, speeches of the representatives of various organizations, parties or intellectuals, which inspired the audience with confidence and trust in the future of the Armenians. As a rule, all speakers would first explain why it was necessary to remember and, particularly, the necessity of collective remembrance of the victims. The audience was indoctrinated by the ideology to establish the connection between the victims and the fact of the existence of the newly established Republic of Armenia at the cost of their lives. In parallel with defaming the perpetrators of the Genocide, the strengthening of the Republic of Armenia was pointed as a revenge and the Armenian victory should manifest in its will to revive, in survival itself. The fact that Armenians were fighters was sometimes demonstrated through emphasized participation of the Armenian servicemen and heroes of self-defense in the mourning processions. As a rule, the representatives of foreign Churches, high rank foreign servicemen and members of the diplomatic missions were invited to the mourning ceremonies. It was a modest attempt to make the narrow, merely community event of the Genocide victims remembrance publicly known and make the citizens of the countries of their residence acknowledge that reality.

THE PEACE CORPS IN US FOREIGN RELATIONS AND CHURCH–STATE POLITICS

AbstractThis article uses new archival evidence and the growing literature on religion and the foreign relations of the United States to reinterpret the Peace Corps. The religious revival of the 1950s continued into the 1960s, and the Kennedy administration saw ‘spiritual values’ as part of the national interest. Church–state politics and Kennedy's public conception of the role of religion in foreign relations dictated that this aspect of the cold war would change in form. The Peace Corps should, in part, be seen as a continuation of the religious cold war, one that drew on the precedents of missionary and church-service organizations. The Corps was a counterpart to church groups working abroad, and hoped to subcontract much of its work to them. Kennedy hoped to work with religious groups in ecumenical fashion. As Catholic organizations were most visibly interested in receiving Corps funds, funding church groups proved politically unworkable, leading to church–state arguments that Kennedy wanted to avoid. The Kennedy administration struggled to separate the secular and the sacred, as confused definitions of ‘religion’ and a tough constitutional stance narrowed policy options. The Peace Corps fight shaped, and was shaped by, contemporary debates over church and state.

Tamás Nótári Law and Society in Lex Baiuvariorum

In this monograph, Tamas Notari investigates certain legal and socio-historical aspects of the lex Baiuvariorum, but also gives ample space to a philological analysis of its Medieval Latin. The first chapter (Historical and social background - Bavaria in the eighth century), examines Bavaria's history and society during the first half of the eighthcentury. Specifically, it deals with Bavaria's home and foreign affairs and church organisation, and certain issues pertaining to the structure of society, namely,the evolution of the Bavarian nobility and the status of freemen and slaves. It furthermore analyses the end of the independent Bavarian Dukedom, focusing on the dethronement of Tasilo III, the last duke of the Agilolfing dynasty, and the legal background of the dethronement.

CHURCH AS AN INTERNATIONAL PRESSURE GROUP: THE WORLD ALLIANCE FOR PROMOTING INTERNATIONAL FRIENDSHIP THROUGH THE CHURCHES AND THE ACTIVITY OF ITS ESTONIAN NATIONAL COMMITTEE FROM 1914 TO 1940

The aim of this article is to analyse the activity of the ecumenical peace organisation The World Alliance for Promoting International Friendship through the Churches and its Estonian national committee. Established in 1914, the Alliance as an instrument for promoting peace and friendship was interested in general problems of the world.s political order. As the representative of Christian and humanistic values and principles, the Alliance emphasised the fight for national minorities, refugees, as well as the opposition to religious persecution and the fight for the right to religious liberty. There was an understanding among the representatives of the Alliance that the organisation was the spiritual equivalent of the League of Nations, the soul of the League. The ideological basis, especially the lack of theological discussion as well as the fact that the Alliance distanced itself from other ecumenical organisations in establishing the World Council of Churches, turned out to be a drawback. For ten years after the First World War the methods of the Alliance seemed to work, but first due to the financial crisis beginning from 1929 and the ever straining situation in the international politics, the Alliance began to lose its clarity of vision and enthusiasm in its activity. The same kind of confusion was characteristic of the League of Nations. At the same time, the Alliance as a promoter of relations between different denominations made a significant contribution to the ecumenical movement. An example from Eastern Europe, namely from Estonia, can be given here, where the Orthodox and Lutheran churches were united in the national committee. According to the Constitution, there was a possibility of including other churches as well. When in most cases the activity of a national council rested upon the importance of churches in society, in Estonia the activity of the Alliance was hampered by the conflict inside the most influential member of the committee . the Lutheran Church. Although society was open to peace work, strained relations in the church shaped the conflicting image of the church in society. In addition, the conservative faction opposed to the idea of the church taking part in the ecumenical movement. At the end of the 1930s the state refused to register the new constitution of the Estonian national committee, because of the States. policy to distance from establishing unions with foreign churches. The secretary of the Estonian committee, Prof. Eduard Tennmann, was the most influential ecumenical figure in the Baltic region. He was one of eight honorary secretaries of the Alliance. In the 1920s he initiated a plan to establish a Peace Academy of the Alliance, but because of the financial reasons the plan was dropped.

The Ecumenical and Patriotic Activity of the Estonian Eparchy in the Context of Soviet Politics of Religion in 1954–1964

AbstractThe post-Stalinist decade resulted in a temporary liberalization in Soviet religious policy in 1956–1957, followed by an intensification of administrative suppression of religious life during the years 1958–1964. A close evaluation of archival sources reveals the quiet two-faced tendencies of Soviet religious policies vis-a-vis the Orthodox Church of occupied Estonia: on one hand, the dozens of orthodox congregations at the local level were forcibly liquidated and the number of clerics decreased rapidly; on the other hand, the patriotic and ecumenical activities of the administration of the Estonian Eparchy increased dramatically and achieved its “golden era” during the tenure of its new bishop of Tallinn, Aleksii Ridiger (the future patriarch Aleksii II of Moscow). This study describes in detail the gradual increase in the interference of Soviet propaganda with the ecumenical and patriotic activity of the Estonian Eparchy from 1959. In the course of subsequent restrictions and the persecution of religion under Khrushchev, the Estonian Diocese of the Moscow Patriarchate was integrated into the larger scheme of Soviet peace propaganda and ecumenical cooperation. This took the form mainly of the joint reception of foreign church delegations which coincided with the tenure of Bishop Aleksii, who played a big role in the Moscow hierarchy as well as in the external affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. Visits of Church delegations in Tallinn and Kuremäe monastery became a kind of “show piece” of religious freedom and played their part in Soviet peace propaganda. In conclusion, the rise and ebb of the patriotic and ecumenical activity of the Orthodox diocese in occupied Estonia were influenced by the changes, which took place among the USSR's highest authorities in the religious policies level and by the transition from Stalinist totalitarian dictatorship toward Nikita Khrushchev's more oligarchical system.

Christian Action and Black Consciousness Community Programmes in South Africa

Many scholars have examined the relationship between Black Theology and Black Consciousness in South Africa in the late 1960s and 1970s. This article analyses another Christian link. It argues that ecumenical organisations (such as the Christian Institute and the South African Council of Churches), foreign churches, radical priests, and local parishes occupied a position in society that allowed them to give significant material support to the Black Consciousness movement, particularly the Black Community Programmes (BCP), a development organisation run by Black Consciousness activists (including Ben Khoapa and Steve Biko). Drawing upon archival and oral history sources, the article first analyses the formation of the BCP, then discusses the financial contributions of churches that enabled the BCP to survive. Finally, it demonstrates how activists gained physical space, in-roads into communities, and moral support from local priests and parishes at the grassroots level in the Eastern Cape and Natal and Transvaal provinces.

Protestantism in Ukraine: Achievements and Losses

Ukrainian Protestantism has a long history, but is still searching for its own identity and its place in the social and cultural life of Ukraine. This article analyses the current state of Ukrainian Protestantism, looking at all the various denominations and church unions, and reveals the basic patterns of its formation and development in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. The author aims to confirm the thesis that the positions of the Protestant churches in the political, social and religious life of the country are gradually strengthening, and also to show the ambiguous attitude of the different Protestant denominations to politics and public processes in Ukraine today. However, the paper offers a critical look at Ukrainian sociology and the conclusions of some Ukrainian analysts about a ‘Protestant boom’ in Ukraine. The author analyses the many contradictory processes which are affecting Ukrainian Protestantism today, and shows a decrease in the rate of its dynamics. The author gives particular emphasis to structural changes which are proving painful for Ukrainian Protestantism, and to the increasingly active role played by Charismatic communities, which is regarded in a negative light by traditional Protestant churches. These latter are less active than the Charismatics in missionary work, less receptive to religious innovation, and less open to society. Many believers, especially younger ones, see a crisis in Ukrainian Protestantism, specific features of which include the material and theological dependence of Ukrainian Protestant communities on foreign churches, the loss of many of their own traditions, inadequacies in religious education, an inclination towards emigration, and weak integration into Ukrainian national and spiritual life. The author links her ideas and conclusions with the example of the Pentecostal community in L'viv in western Ukraine, which reflects the general problems of Ukrainian Protestantism.

Foreign Churches in St. Petersburg and their Archives, 1703–1917

Foreign Churches in St. Petersburg and their Archives, 1703–1917

Foreign churches in St Petersburg and their archives, 1703–1917. Edited by Pieter Holtrop and Henk Slechte. (Brill's Series in Church History, 29.) Pp. xiii+226 incl. frontispiece and 22 figs. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2007. €99. 978 90 04 16260 0; 1572 4107

Foreign churches in St Petersburg and their archives, 1703–1917. Edited by Pieter Holtrop and Henk Slechte. (Brill's Series in Church History, 29.) Pp. xiii+226 incl. frontispiece and 22 figs. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2007. €99. 978 90 04 16260 0; 1572 4107

Barmen, the Ecumenical Movement, and the Jews: The Missing Thesis

Barmen, the Ecumenical Movement, and the Jews: The Missing Thesis

Historical and Theological Analysis of the Pentecostal Church in Norway

The Pentecostal churches in Norway are comparatively small, and yet the influence of the Norwegian Pentecostals on global Pentecostalism has been significant. Pentecostalism is now the largest Free Church in Norway and the church that Barratt built to house the new tradition is still in use in central Oslo (then Kristiania) and still innovative in its mission and radical in its spirituality.' This essay will trace the development of the tradition founded by a de-frocked Methodist clergyman, persecuted in the press and attacked from the left and the right, to its role in defining the theology and praxis of Pentecostalism around the world. Contrary to what might be expected, the Norwegian Pentecostal church was not founded by North American missionaries, nor have the Norwegian Pentecostal churches ever been controlled by the North American churches. Like other European Pentecostal churches, indeed as the majority of the Pentecostal churches around the world, Norwegian Pentecostalism is and has always been an indigenous religious tradition with neither financial nor moral support from foreign churches.