Forearm Length Research Articles

Allometric analysis of sexual dimorphism and morphological variation in two chromosome races of the Sceloporus grammicus complex (Squamata: Phrynosomatidae) from Mexico

Sexual dimorphism is a widespread feature in the Animal Kingdom. In lizards of the Sceloporus grammicus complex, studies of sexual dimorphism that analyze the allometric trajectories of body traits remain unexplored. Here we investigate sexual dimorphism in key phenotypic traits, including body size (snout-vent length, SVL) as well as head length (HL), head width (HW), and forearm length (FL). We use an allometric approach to detect differences in scale relationships among body parts in the S. grammicus complex in Mexico. We focus on two chromosomal races within this complex, F5 (2n = 34) and FM2 (2n = 46). In the complex, we found that males are larger than females in all morphological variables, and this pattern was confirmed in both races. We determined negative allometric trajectories (SVLvs.HL and HW), isometry (SVLvs.FL) and intersexual differences in the slopes of the SVLvs.HL and HW; the males showed steeper slopes. Thus, the growth of the head is more pronounced in males than females. Additionally, we found between-race differences in these trajectories (SVLvs.FL) and in all morphological variables (F5 lizards are larger than those of the FM2 race), which correlate with their chromosomal divergence. We discuss biological implications of our findings in relation to sexual selection and natural selection.

The unsolved problem of radial longitudinal dysplasia: how can we reliably prevent recurrence, preserve growth and optimize function?

Congenital radial longitudinal dysplasia remains an 'unsolved problem' in hand surgery. The challenges presented by the skeletal deficiency of the distal radius and soft tissue dysplasia of the severe radial longitudinal deficiency have been addressed by a number of techniques that aim to stabilize the position of the hand relative to the forearm and optimize forearm growth and hand function. Analysis of hand function and position in these children is difficult because of the abnormal 'wrist' mechanics, and the published results of the techniques used to date often lack a standardized approach and importantly the perception of function from the patient's perspective. The existing data is reviewed and compared with the results of cohorts from two major congenital upper limb centres. Soft tissue distraction prior to radialization or centralization may offer benefit in ulnar growth and forearm length but there is a need for further research into the long-term functional outcomes of the various techniques available to determine the optimal choice for these children.Level of evidence: V.

Anatomical variations of the flexor carpi ulnaris in the fetal period

Introduction: The Flexor Carpi Ulnaris (FCU) is a part of the palmar the forearm muscle group and one of the most important muscles for upper limb functioning - is responsible for flexion and adduc­tion of the hand at the radio-carpal joint. There are clinically significant but rare anatomical variations of FCU. The variability of the FCU has not been described up to now, and no typology of the muscle based on its more variable terminal attachment has been created. Aim of the study: Determination of FCU muscle typology based on available fetal material. Material and methods: A total of 114 human fetuses (53 female, 61 male) between 117 and 197 days of fetal life were eligible for the study. Preparations were carried out using classical anatomical techniques based on a previously published procedure. Thanks to that significant anthropometric landmarks were vis­ible for the gathering of metric measurements. Metric measurements were taken and statistically analysed using R-Project software. Results: A new typology was created based on variable muscle insertions. Additionally, the presence of an atypically located, additional, separated muscle belly was described. A comparison of measurements of the left upper limb in relation to the right upper limb showed significant differences for forearm length to the anthropometric point of the stylion radiale, limb length, total FCU length and FCU length which means that the left limb is longer than the right limb. A comparison of FCU insertion types between left and right upper limb showed there’s no significant difference between counts of each type. Conclusion: The FCU is a muscle that is easy to palpate and may therefore act as a topographical marker for healthcare professionals. Knowledge of its variability is not only of theoretical importance but also has clinical sig­nificance. The current publication demonstrates presence of variability in FCU terminal attachment. Certainly, this topic requires further research and continued work on a detailed understanding of forearm anatomy in the fetal period.

Elbow stress in youth softball windmill pitchers: predictors of increased torque

Purpose: To assess torque at the elbow in the underhand throwing motion utilizing wearable sensor technology and discover the predictors of medial elbow toque in young female softball pitchers. Methods: Female softball players 12 to 18 years old whose primary position was pitcher and actively participating in sport were studied. Players experiencing throwing arm pain, lower extremity injury hindering pitching motion, or prior surgery were excluded. Age, handedness, height, weight, and throwing arm dimensions were measured and recorded. Pitchers threw 15 pitches, max effort from 43 feet and were given 30 to 60 second rest between pitches. A wearable sensor was placed inside an athletic compression sleeve which recorded data. Measurements included medial elbow torque (Newton-meters; NM), arm speed (peak rotational velocity of the forearm; in rotations per minute; RPM), arm slot (forearm angle in relation to the ground at release; in degrees), and shoulder rotation (maximum forearm angle during the 12 o’clock phase; in degrees). Peak ball velocity in miles per hour (MPH) was measured by a radar gun. Results: Twenty females mean age 15.2 years (range, 12.6-16.9 years) achieved an average elbow stress of 35.5 NM (14-78 NM). Average arm speed measured 583.8 RPM (3502.8 deg/sec) and ball speed ranged from 33-56 mph with an average of 44.1 mph. Multivariate analysis demonstrated arm stress significantly associated with increasing age (P-value 0.00003), and arm length (P-value 0.000006); however, increased forearm length measured a decreased arm stress (P-value 0.00007). Conclusions: There was significant stress measured across the medial elbow in young softball pitchers. Elbow torque was associated with increasing age and total arm length; however, increased forearm length was associated with decreased elbow torque.

An Estimation of Stature and Sex using Various Anthropometric Parameters in South Indian Population

Estimation of stature and sex is very important to identify the unidentified human remains to solve the crime or in the case of mass destruction. The stature can be estimated using various regression formulas and it differs depending on the population and the regions. To predict stature and sex from various anthropometric parameters in south Indian population. One hundred adults (living individuals) belonging to the age group of 20–80 years were included in the study. A total of 22 anthropometric parameters were measured for the study. Using the regression formula, the stature is been estimated. Statistical analysis of all the parameters was done. Correlation coefficient test was done to correlate all the parameters with stature and sex. Based on the coefficient correlation result, it was found that for stature estimation leg length followed by thigh length is the best and ear length (EL) is the worst in females. In males for stature estimation, forearm length (FL) is the best and nose width (NW) is the worst. In estimating sex height, weight, foot length and width, hand length and width, arm and FL, inter-acromial distance, cranial height and width, face length and width, NW and nasal height and EL were found to be significant. Results of this study will be useful for forensic anthropologist for estimating stature and sex. The regression equations obtained in this study are population specific and they can be used for estimating stature in the south Indian population.

Estimation of Height Using Body Weight and Segmental Measurements in Children with Cerebral Palsy.

The current study aimed to determine the proxy measurements for height in children with Cerebral Palsy (CP). In a cross-sectional descriptive study, the length/height of Nigerian children with CP was studied over eighteen months using descriptive statistics. The study subjects comprised children aged 15 months to 17 years with CP. Height/length, weight, arm span, forearm length, mid-upper arm circumference, foot length, head circumference, hip circumference, leg length, and tibia length were measured to the nearest 0.1 cm using standard procedures. The relations between segmental measurements and weight with height were investigated using linear regression. A total of 31 children were studied. The correlation between height/length and other linear measurements has a significantly strong positive relationship. Regression analysis showed that when used singly, the weight and thigh length offered a high explanation for the height variability with little estimation error. On the other hand, weight had a lower mean difference between observed and predicted height (0.21 and -0.76, respectively), with thigh length overestimating the height. Weight measurement may be the preferred proxy for height in children with CP.

Elbow stress in youth softball windmill pitchers: predictors of increased torque

Purpose: To assess torque at the elbow in the underhand throwing motion utilizing wearable sensor technology and discover the predictors of medial elbow toque in young female softball pitchers. Methods: Female softball players 12 to 18 years old whose primary position was pitcher and actively participating in sport were studied. Players experiencing throwing arm pain, lower extremity injury hindering pitching motion, or prior surgery were excluded. Age, handedness, height, weight, and throwing arm dimensions were measured and recorded. Pitchers threw 15 pitches, max effort from 43 feet and were given 30 to 60 second rest between pitches. A wearable sensor was placed inside an athletic compression sleeve which recorded data. Measurements included medial elbow torque (Newton-meters; NM), arm speed (peak rotational velocity of the forearm; in rotations per minute; RPM), arm slot (forearm angle in relation to the ground at release; in degrees), and shoulder rotation (maximum forearm angle during the 12 o’clock phase; in degrees). Peak ball velocity in miles per hour (MPH) was measured by a radar gun. Results: Twenty females mean age 15.2 years (range, 12.6-16.9 years) achieved an average elbow stress of 35.5 NM (14-78 NM). Average arm speed measured 583.8 RPM (3502.8 deg/sec) and ball speed ranged from 33-56 mph with an average of 44.1 mph. Multivariate analysis demonstrated arm stress significantly associated with increasing age (P-value 0.00003), arm length (P-value 0.000006); however, increased forearm length measured a decreased arm stress (P-value 0.00007). Conclusions: There was significant stress measured across the medial elbow in young softball pitchers. Elbow torque was associated with increasing age and total arm length; however, increased forearm length was associated with decreased elbow torque.

Difference between affected and unaffected sides of forearm bone length in children with congenital terminal transverse deficiencies at the level of carpal bone.

The forearm of the affected sideis often shorter than that of the unaffected side in children with congenital terminal transverse deficiencies at the level of proximal or distal carpals. The aim of this study is to clarify the characteristics of forearm bone length in those children, especially to quantify the difference in forearm bone length between affected and unaffected sides. The subjects were children with carpal partial transverse deficiencies. The lengths of the radius and the ulna were measured in the radiographs. The lengths of affected and unaffected sides (A/U) were compared in order to quantify the discrepancy. The A/U ratio was defined as the length of the affected side divided by that of the unaffected side. The A/U ratios ranged from 77.1 to 99.0% in the radii and from 74.1 to 99.6% in the ulnae. In both the radius and ulna, the A/U ratios were significantly lower than the left/right ratios of normal adults. Additionally, the A/U ratios of the ulna were significantly lower than the A/U ratios of the radius. The forearm bones of affected side are significantly shorter than those of unaffected side. Although the cause remains unclear, it is possible that not only congenital factors but also acquired factors such as infrequent use of the affected upper limb are involved. A future longitudinal study is necessary to investigate whether length discrepancies can be reduced by using prostheses to increase the frequency of use on the affected limb.

Epidemiologic Studies, Acute Poisoning, Organophosphorous Compounds, House hold Products.

With the increasing frequency of mass disasters, the identification of mutilated remains becomes quite challenging. With commingling, identification becomes further difficult. During such investigations, there is a need to estimate the stature to narrow down the identity of the dead. Estimation of stature is more accurate and reliable using long bones than any other part of the body. Despite a need for such a study, there is a lack of systematic studies to identify fragmented and dismembered human remains. aim: The aim of the present study is to analyze the anthropometric relationship between forearm length and body height in both sexes specifically for a population of South India. materials and methods: The study was conducted in the Department of Forensic Medicine & Toxicology, Dr. Chandramma Dayananda Sagar Institute of Medical Education and Research, Ramanagara District, Karnataka in the year 2022. The material consisted of 180 young and healthy students (90 males and 90 females) in the age group of 18-24 years after taking informed consent to participate in the study. Subjects of south Indian origin were selected based on their mother tongue. The data obtained were computed and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 26.0) computer software. results: In the present study, mean stature and forearm length were significantly higher in males than in females. A statistically significant correlation was observed between stature and forearm length. The correlation coefficient was higher among males than females. Linear regression models derived for the reconstruction of stature in males y = 2.5345 (forearm length) + 101.64 and in females is y = 3.4513 (forearm length) + 73.879. conclusion: The study concludes that stature can be estimated from forearm length with reasonable accuracy among South Indians. Sex-specific linear regression formulae were derived for estimating stature from forearm length.

Stature Estimation from Forearm Length: An Anthropometric Study on Medical Students of South Indian Origin

Forensic identification of mutilated and fragmented body parts is a critical part of forensic investigation. Stature is a major criterion of identification and provides useful clues to the investigating agency. There are established correlations of stature with body parts such as extremities, head, trunk, vertebral column, etc. This study was formulated to find out the correlation between maximum head length and maximum head breadth with stature in humans and to calculate a regression equation to determine stature from the head length and head breadth at Kolkata Police Morgue attached to the Upgraded Department of Forensic and State Medicine, Medical College, Kolkata. It is a cross-sectional, observational study. Total 32 deceased subjects (n= 32, m=26 f=6) were selected for the study depending on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Maximum head length and breadth were measured in each using spreading calipers and stature was measured using standard autopsy procedures. The results were tabulated in an excel spreadsheet and analyzed using Stat Cal C software and SSS (online). The mean, stature of the study population was 162.54 cm, head length 17.78 cm, and head breadth 13.75. cm r = 0.473 (head length, p <0.006) , 0.181 (head breadth, p <0.321). Regression equations: stature = 3.83 × head length + 94.43; 2.09 × head breadth + 133.69 and 3.76 × head length + 0.29 × head breadth +91.60. Head length and head breadth were correlated with stature. Regression equations can be used to estimate stature in forensic cases from head length and breadth.

Argentinean Myotis (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae), including the description of a new species from the Yungas

Myotis is the most speciose genus of mammals in the world and recent taxonomic revisions have revealed an impressive diversity of species in South America. Even so, the phenotypic conservatism of some taxa makes taxonomic delimitation difficult. We perform a taxonomic review of Myotis from Argentina based on qualitative and quantitative morphological characters. Our results confirm the occurrence of 12 species (M. albescens, M. chiloensis, M. dinellii, M. izecksohni, M. keaysi, M. lavali, M. levis, M. nigricans, M. oxyotus, M. riparius, M. ruber, and M. cf. simus) and revealed an additional new species for the Yungas Forest. The new species is small to medium (forearm length ~ 35 mm) and can be distinguished from its congeners by a set of characters that includes forearm length, cranial measurements, discrete craniodental characters, and fur color. This review does not exhaust the need for new systematic studies with Argentinean Myotis, considering the possibility of occurrence of new species and the great morphological variation found for some complex taxa.

Extensive Adaptive Variation in Gene Expression within and between Closely Related Horseshoe Bats (Chiroptera, Rhinolophus) Revealed by Three Organs.

In the process of species differentiation and adaption, the relative influence of natural selection on gene expression variation often remains unclear (especially its impact on phenotypic divergence). In this study, we used differentially expressed genes from brain, cochlea, and liver samples collected from two species of bats to determine the gene expression variation forced by natural selection when comparing at the interspecific (Rhinolophus siamensis and R. episcopus episcopus) and the intraspecific (R. e. episcopus and R. episcopus spp.) levels. In both cases, gene expression variation was extensively adaptive (>66.0%) and mainly governed by directional selection, followed by stabilizing selection, and finally balancing selection. The expression variation related to acoustic signals (resting frequency, RF) and body size (forearm length, FA) was also widely governed by natural selection (>69.1%). Different functional patterns of RF- or FA-related adaptive expression variation were found between the two comparisons, which manifested as abundant immune-related regulations between subspecies (indicating a relationship between immune response and phenotypic adaption). Our study verifies the extensive adaptive expression variation between both species and subspecies and provides insight into the effects of natural selection on species differentiation and adaptation as well as phenotypic divergence at the expression level.

Upaya Peningkatan Minat Baca Kalangan Remaja dengan Pengadaan Kursi Ergonomis di Dukuh Kalitan Kartasura

The development of science and technology that is increasing rapidly at the time causes the development of information to grow rapidly. Dukuh Kalitan is one area that has a young generation with low interest in reading. One of the reasons for this lack of interest in reading is the lack of education about the importance of reading for the younger generation. Another factor is found in the field is the unavailability of reading facilities in Dukuh Kalitan. The solution offered from these problems is the procurement of an ergonomic reading chair. The reading chair will be made based on the user’s body dimensions. The goal is to make users feel comfortable, prevent risks that occur due to workloads, and increase user satisfaction. The method used through a combination of empowerment includes methods: increasing knowledge in the form of counseling and procuring products in the form of an ergonomic reading chair. The procurement of ergonomic reading chairs is carried out by measuring the user’s body dimensions using anthropometry and percentile calculations. The design of this ergonomic reading chair uses a design type for adjustable use. The conclusions that can be drawn are as follows: (1) the principle of ergonomics is very relevant in designing an ergonomic reading chair that fits the dimensions of the user’s body; (2) there are 7 dimensions for designing an ergonomic reading chair for teenagers in Dukuh Kalitan, namely: popliteal height, popliteal buttocks, hip width, sitting shoulder height, shoulder width, sitting elbow height and forearm length.

Application of a parallel laser apparatus to measure forearms and flanges of wild Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii).

We constructed a parallel laser photogrammetry apparatus constructed from commercially available parts, and measured forearm lengths and flange widths of 16 wild Bornean orangutans. Our objectives were to validate our method and apparatus, discuss issues encountered, and construct preliminary growth curves. For adult males, we also compared flange width to forearm length as a way to investigate the relationship between body size and flange development. We used a camera cage around a DSLR camera, on top of which we attached two parallel green lasers. We estimated error with repeatability, accuracy, and interobserver reliability measures, and measured forearm lengths in three different ways to see which was most consistent. The longest forearm measure was the most repeatable (CV = 1.64%), and was similar to flange repeatability (3.50%). Accuracy measurements of a known object were high (error = 0.25%), and Interobserver discrepancy low (3.74%). Laser spacing increased with distance to the subject, but we corrected for this using calibration photos after each session. We transparently discuss the issues we encountered with the aim that this accessible method can help expand the use of laser photogrammetry. Preliminary measurements show that male flange widths and forearm length do not reliably increase in tandem, and that female growth plateaus at around the age at first birth (15 years old). We conclude with suggested improvements to the apparatus and method to ensure the lasers remain parallel.

Wings of fringed fruit-eating bats (Artibeus fimbriatus) are highly integrated biological aerofoils from perspectives of secondary sexual dimorphism, allometry and modularity

AbstractPhenotypic variability is ubiquitous. This is especially true in bats, where families such as Phyllostomidae encompass as much phenotypic variability as some entire orders of mammals. Typically, phenotypic variability is characterized based on cranial morphology, with studies of other functionally important aspects of the phenotype, such as legs, feet and wings, being less frequent. We examined patterns of secondary sexual dimorphism and allometry of wing elements of the fringed fruit-eating bat (Artibeus fimbriatus) and examined, for the first time, the modularity of bat wings. Patterns were based on 13 wing measurements taken from 21 females and 15 males from eastern Paraguay. From a multivariate perspective, A. fimbriatus exhibited significant secondary sexual dimorphism. Females were larger than males for all 13 wing characteristics, with significant differences involving the last phalanx of the fourth and fifth digits. Female wings were also relatively larger than male wings from a multivariate perspective, as was the last phalanx of the fourth and fifth digits, after adjusting for wing size based on forearm length. Wing elements were highly variable regarding allometric relationships, with some exhibiting no allometric patterns and others exhibiting isometry or hyperallometry, depending on the element. Wings exhibited significant modularity, with metacarpals, proximal phalanges and distal phalanges each representing a discrete module. The wings of A. fimbriatus exhibit substantive patterns of dimorphism, allometry and modularity. Although the big mother hypothesis is a strong theoretical construct to explain wing dimorphism, there is not yet any sound theoretical basis for the patterns of allometry and modularity of the wing. Further investigation is required to understand the determinants of variation in wing morphology.

A New Record of Hypsugo pulveratus on Amami-Oshima Island, Japan and Comparison with H. alaschanicus

Three vespertilionid bats were captured from Amami-Oshima Island, and had an average forearm length of 35 mm and average body weight of 8 g. From the side of the bat skulls, the ridge of the crown was slightly curved at the base of the snout; the second upper premolar (P2) in the bats was relatively large; the male baculum was shaped like an elongated, 3-mm-long spear tip and was very similar in both shape and size to that of Hypsugo pulveratus. The phylogenetic tree inferred from the mitochondrial COI gene sequences revealed that these bats clustered with H. pulveratus. Therefore, the bats from Amami-Oshima Island were identified as H. pulveratus. The present paper lists and depicts the morphological differences between H. pulveratus and H. alaschanicus so far known from the territory of Japan. Finally, genetic analysis based on the barcoding gene sequences revealed that these species formed distinct clades.

Reproduction, seasonal morphology, and juvenile growth in three Malagasy fruit bats.

The island nation of Madagascar is home to three endemic species of Old World fruit bat in the family Pteropodidae: Pteropus rufus, Eidolon dupreanum, and Rousettus madagascariensis, all three of which are IUCN Red Listed under some category of threat. Delineation of seasonal limits in the reproductive calendar for threatened mammals can inform conservation efforts by clarifying parameters used in population viability models, as well as elucidate understanding of the mechanisms underpinning pathogen persistence in host populations. Here, we define the seasonal limits of a staggered annual birth pulse across the three species of endemic Madagascar fruit bat, known reservoirs for viruses of high zoonotic potential. Our field studies indicate that this annual birth pulse takes place in September/October for P. rufus, November for E. dupreanum, and December for R. madagascariensis in central-eastern Madagascar where the bulk of our research was concentrated. Juvenile development periods vary across the three Malagasy pteropodids, resulting in near-synchronous weaning of pups for all species in late January-February at the height of the fruiting season for this region. We here document the size range in morphological traits for the three Malagasy fruit bat species, with P. rufus and E. dupreanum among the larger of pteropodids globally and R. madagascariensis among the smaller. All three species demonstrate subtle sexual dimorphism with males being larger than females. We explore seasonal variation in adult body condition by comparing observed body mass with body mass predicted by forearm length, demonstrating that pregnant females add weight during staggered gestation periods and males lose weight during the nutritionally deficit Malagasy winter. Finally, we quantify forearm, tibia, and ear length growth rates in juvenile bats, demonstrating both faster growth and more protracted development times for P. rufus as compared with E. dupreanum and R. madagascariensis. The longer development period for the already-threatened P. rufus further undermines the conservation status of this species as human hunting is particularly detrimental to population viability during reproductive periods. Our work highlights the importance of longitudinal field studies in collecting critical data for mammalian conservation efforts and human public health alike.

Prophesy of Spiker Performance on the basis of selected Anthropometric Characteristics

Objective: The study was conducted with an objective to prophesy the spiker’s performance on the basis of anthropometric characteristics. Variables: In the study, Spiker’s Performance was selected as dependent variable (DV) and selected anthropometric characteristics i.e. SH (Spiker’s Height), SW (Spiker’s Weight), SAL (Spiker’s Arm Length), SFAL (Spiker’s Fore Arm Length, SUAL (Spiker’s Upper Arm Length), SUAC (Spiker’s Upper Arm Circumference), SWC (Spiker’s waist Circumference), SHC (Spiker’s Hip Circumference), SLL (Spiker’s Leg Length), SLLL (Spiker’s Lower Leg Length), STC (Spiker’s Thigh Circumference) and SCC (Spiker’s Calf Circumference) were observed independent variables (IV). Subjects: For the purpose of the present study, 75 spikers were selected as subjects from interuniversity level volleyball tournament organized in India. Statistical Analysis: To find out relationship between Dependent Variable (Spiker’s Performance) and Independent Variables (selected Anthropometric Characteristics), product moment correlation and multiple correlations were applied. For the prophecy of Dependent Variable (Spiker’s Performance) on the basis of Independent Variables (selected Anthropometric Characteristics), multiple regression equation was applied. Conclusions: For the prophecy of Dependent Variable (Spiker’s Performance) on the basis of Independent Variables (selected Anthropometric Characteristics) two regression models are established. Established regression models are: (1) Spiker’s Performance = -35.586 +.667 X Spiker’s Arm Length and (2) Spiker’s Performance = -23.512 +.458 X Spiker’s Arm Length + .210 X Spiker’s Upper Arm Circumference.

Growth trajectories of wild Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis) determined from parallel laser photogrammetry

Socioecological factors are associated with life-history patterns and growth trajectories among primates. Under certain conditions, selection may favor a temporal decoupling of growth and major life-history events such as sexual maturation or natal dispersal. Yet, empirical tests of these associations in wild populations remain scarce owing to the lack of non-invasive methods to capture growth trajectories. In this study, we first compared two non-invasive methods of digital photogrammetry. Then, we used parallel laser photogrammetry to investigate forearm growth of wild Assamese macaque males and females in their natural habitat at Phu Khieo Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand to test life-history and socio-ecological hypotheses. Across 48 males and 44 females, we estimated growth trajectories and pseudo-velocity curves by applying quadratic plateau models and non-parametric LOESS regressions. We assessed the development of sexual dimorphism by comparing the sexes at five different ages. Females had completed 96% of their growth at the age at first birth (5.9 years) and ceased growing at 7.1 years of age. Males, in contrast, grew until well after their average age of natal dispersal: they reached 81% of their size at the age of natal dispersal (4.0 years), and ceased growing only at 9.0 years of age, much later than females. Sexual dimorphism in forearm length was driven by an extended growth period in males, which is expected for males dispersing between multimale and multifemale groups and not facing the risk of being ousted by other larger males. Our results contradict the neonatal investment hypothesis that predicts a desynchronization of investment in growth and reproduction only in female baboons, but not other papionins producing cheaper neonates. Furthermore, male Assamese macaques do not delay natal dispersal until they are fully grown, in accordance with predictions of the male-career-framework for species with low to medium level of direct competition.

Correlation Between Morphometric Measurements and Carrying Angle of Human Elbow.

Purpose: This prospective cohort study aims to determine the correlation between morphometric measurements and the carrying angle of human elbow.Methods: One hundred forty children were enrolled in the study. They were evaluated for age, sex, morphometric measurements, clinical carrying angle (CCA) and radiological carrying angle (RCA). The morphometric measurements included in the study were length of arms and forearms, inter-epicondylar distance of both sides, trans-trochanteric distance, height and body mass index. The mean of carrying angles in unrelated groups (gender and secondary sexual features) was compared using the unpaired t-test. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the strength and direction of the relationship between carrying angle and continuous variables (age, height, body mass index, forearm length, arm length, inter-epicondylar distance and trans-trochanteric distance).Results: The mean age was 5.84±4.76 years. Ninety-eight (70%) were males, and forty-two (30%) were females. The means of RCAs of the left side and right side were 9.07±2.13 and 8.85±2.09, respectively. The mean values of CCA on the left side and right side were 8.77±2.03 and 8.55±2.01 each. A significant positive correlation was found between CCA and age, weight, height, arm length, forearm length, inter-epicondylar distance and trans-trochanteric distance. CCA was found to be significantly negatively correlated with body mass index.Conclusion: CCA is significantly correlated with age, BMI and morphometric measurements.