Forced-choice Test Research Articles

Salivary leptin and TAS1R2/TAS1R3 polymorphisms are related to sweet taste sensitivity and carbohydrate intake from a buffet meal in healthy young adults.

The influence of sweet taste sensitivity on food intake is not well understood. We investigated the involvement of salivary leptin and SNP of the sweet taste receptor genes (TAS1R2/TAS1R3) on sweet taste sensitivity, sensory-specific satiety (SSS) and macronutrient intake in healthy human adults. In all, nineteen high sweet sensitivity (HS) and eleven low sweet sensitivity (LS) subjects were classified based on the sweetness perception of one solution (9 mm sucrose) forced-choice triangle test. All participants completed a randomised crossover design experiment where they consumed one of three iso-energetic soup preloads differing in primary taste quality (sweet, non-sweet taste-control or no-taste energy-control). A period of 1 h after the preload, participants were offered a buffet meal consisting of foods varying in taste (sweet or non-sweet) and fat content. Subjective measures included hunger/fullness and SSS for sweetness. Saliva and buccal cells were collected to measure leptin level and to study the TAS1R2/TAS1R3 specific SNP, respectively. Salivary leptin concentrations were significantly higher in LS than HS participants (P<0·05). In addition, HS showed stronger sweet SSS compared with LH participants (P<0·05), and consumed less carbohydrate (% energy) and more non-sweet foods than LS (P<0·01 and P<0·05, respectively). Alleles from each TAS1R2 locus (GG compared with AA alleles of rs12033832, and CT/CC compared with TT alleles of rs35874116) were related to higher consumption of carbohydrates (% energy) and higher amount of sweet foods, respectively (P<0·05). In contrast, no associations were found for the TAS1R3 alleles. These results contribute to understand the links between taste sensitivity, macronutrient appetite and food consumption.

Positive Effects of Disruptive Advertising on Consumer Preferences

Advertisers want to get consumers to love the advertised products, but they often try to do this by annoying them with unwelcome and disruptive advertising. This creates a possible contradiction between the negative feelings elicited by the advertising and the positive feelings the consumers are supposed to develop towards the advertised products. One may assume that the negative feelings towards annoying advertising are transferred to the advertised brands. This assumption was tested in a series of five experiments. Participants were disrupted by annoying pop-up ads while playing a popular computer game. In a two-alternative forced choice (2AFC) test, participants were required to choose between advertised and new brands. The advertised brands were preferred over the new brands, even though the ads were perceived as annoying. The positive effects of disruptive advertising can be attributed to the enhanced fluency of advertised brands. These findings demonstrate that disruptive advertising can be effective in increasing brand preferences, which may help to explain the widespread use of this type of advertising in practice. However, before recommending the use of disruptive advertising, it should be taken into consideration that it may also have undesirable side effects such as increasing advertising avoidance.

Perception of expressive prosodic speech acts performed in USA english by L1 and L2 speakers

Attitudes have been described for different languages, with varying labels or contexts of occurrence for same labels. It renders cross-cultural comparison uncertain. A corpus was designed to bypass these limitations. This paper focuses on USA English produced by L1 and L2 speakers. The best performances in 9 attitudes are used in a forced-choice test, in both audio and visual modalities. Results show that 6 categories group the presented attitudes in coherent sets. The cultural origin affects marginally the categorisation of the expressions. An acoustic analysis of the fundamental frequency and intensity allows to test the predictions of two theoretical propositions – the Frequency code and the Effort code. It concludes to a main coherence of cross-language expressivity, and discusses differences. For negative expressions of imposition, L1 speakers follow the Frequency code – and L1 listeners expect this; L2 speakers use the Effort code in the same situations, leading to confusions in the audio-only modality. Differences for seduction and irony are also discussed.

A simple method for low-contrast detectability, image quality and dose optimisation with CT iterative reconstruction algorithms and model observers

BackgroundThe aim of this work was to evaluate detection of low-contrast objects and image quality in computed tomography (CT) phantom images acquired at different tube loadings (i.e. mAs) and reconstructed with different algorithms, in order to find appropriate settings to reduce the dose to the patient without any image detriment.MethodsImages of supraslice low-contrast objects of a CT phantom were acquired using different mAs values. Images were reconstructed using filtered back projection (FBP), hybrid and iterative model-based methods. Image quality parameters were evaluated in terms of modulation transfer function; noise, and uniformity using two software resources. For the definition of low-contrast detectability, studies based on both human (i.e. four-alternative forced-choice test) and model observers were performed across the various images.ResultsCompared to FBP, image quality parameters were improved by using iterative reconstruction (IR) algorithms. In particular, IR model-based methods provided a 60% noise reduction and a 70% dose reduction, preserving image quality and low-contrast detectability for human radiological evaluation. According to the model observer, the diameters of the minimum detectable detail were around 2 mm (up to 100 mAs). Below 100 mAs, the model observer was unable to provide a result.ConclusionIR methods improve CT protocol quality, providing a potential dose reduction while maintaining a good image detectability. Model observer can in principle be useful to assist human performance in CT low-contrast detection tasks and in dose optimisation.

High-Fidelity Visual Long-Term Memory within an Unattended Blink of an Eye.

What is stored in long-term memory from current sensations is a question that has attracted considerable interest. Over time, several prominent theories have consistently proposed that only attended sensory information leaves a durable memory trace whereas unattended information is not stored beyond the current moment, an assumption that seems to be supported by abundant empirical evidence. Here we show, by using a more sensitive memory test than in previous studies, that this is actually not true. Observers viewed a rapid stream of real-world object pictures overlapped by words (presentation duration per stimulus: 500 ms, interstimulus interval: 200 ms), with the instruction to attend to the words and detect word repetitions, without knowing that their memory would be tested later. In a surprise two-alternative forced-choice recognition test, memory for the unattended object pictures was tested. Memory performance was substantially above chance, even when detailed feature knowledge was necessary for correct recognition, even when tested 24 h later, and even although participants reported that they do not have any memories. These findings suggests that humans have the ability to store at high speed detailed copies of current visual stimulations in long-term memory independently of current intentions and the current attentional focus.

Eye movements in implicit artificial grammar learning.

Artificial grammar learning (AGL) has been probed with forced-choice behavioral tests (active tests). Recent attempts to probe the outcomes of learning (implicitly acquired knowledge) with eye-movement responses (passive tests) have shown null results. However, these latter studies have not tested for sensitivity effects, for example, increased eye movements on a printed violation. In this study, we tested for sensitivity effects in AGL tests with (Experiment 1) and without (Experiment 2) concurrent active tests (preference- and grammaticality classification) in an eye-tracking experiment. Eye movements discriminated between sequence types in passive tests and more so in active tests. The eye-movement profile did not differ between preference and grammaticality classification, and it resembled sensitivity effects commonly observed in natural syntax processing. Our findings show that the outcomes of implicit structured sequence learning can be characterized in eye tracking. More specifically, whole trial measures (dwell time, number of fixations) showed robust AGL effects, whereas first-pass measures (first-fixation duration) did not. Furthermore, our findings strengthen the link between artificial and natural syntax processing, and they shed light on the factors that determine performance differences in preference and grammaticality classification tests. (PsycINFO Database Record

Multimodal Emotion Recognition Is Resilient to Insufficient Sleep: Results From Cross-Sectional and Experimental Studies.

Insufficient sleep has been associated with impaired recognition of facial emotions. However, previous studies have found inconsistent results, potentially stemming from the type of static picture task used. We therefore examined whether insufficient sleep was associated with decreased emotion recognition ability in two separate studies using a dynamic multimodal task. Study 1 used a cross-sectional design consisting of 291 participants with questionnaire measures assessing sleep duration and self-reported sleep quality for the previous night. Study 2 used an experimental design involving 181 participants where individuals were quasi-randomized into either a sleep-deprivation (N = 90) or a sleep-control (N = 91) condition. All participants from both studies were tested on the same forced-choice multimodal test of emotion recognition to assess the accuracy of emotion categorization. Sleep duration, self-reported sleep quality (study 1), and sleep deprivation (study 2) did not predict overall emotion recognition accuracy or speed. Similarly, the responses to each of the twelve emotions tested showed no evidence of impaired recognition ability, apart from one positive association suggesting that greater self-reported sleep quality could predict more accurate recognition of disgust (study 1). The studies presented here involve considerably larger samples than previous studies and the results support the null hypotheses. Therefore, we suggest that the ability to accurately categorize the emotions of others is not associated with short-term sleep duration or sleep quality and is resilient to acute periods of insufficient sleep.

Interim Results of a Multicenter Trial with the New Electronic Subretinal Implant Alpha AMS in 15 Patients Blind from Inherited Retinal Degenerations.

Purpose: We assessed the safety and efficacy of a technically advanced subretinal electronic implant, RETINA IMPLANT Alpha AMS, in end stage retinal degeneration in an interim analysis of two ongoing prospective clinical trials. The purpose of this article is to describe the interim functional results (efficacy).Methods: The subretinal visual prosthesis RETINA IMPLANT Alpha AMS (Retina Implant AG, Reutlingen, Germany) was implanted in 15 blind patients with hereditary retinal degenerations at four study sites with a follow-up period of 12 months (www.clinicaltrials.gov NCT01024803 and NCT02720640). Functional outcome measures included (1) screen-based standardized 2- or 4-alternative forced-choice (AFC) tests of light perception, light localization, grating detection (basic grating acuity (BaGA) test), and Landolt C-rings; (2) gray level discrimination; (3) performance during activities of daily living (ADL-table tasks).Results: Implant-mediated light perception was observed in 13/15 patients. During the observation period implant mediated localization of visual targets was possible in 13/15 patients. Correct grating detection was achieved for spatial frequencies of 0.1 cpd (cycles per degree) in 4/15; 0.33 cpd in 3/15; 0.66 cpd in 2/15; 1.0 cpd in 2/15 and 3.3 cpd in 1/15 patients. In two patients visual acuity (VA) assessed with Landolt C- rings was 20/546 and 20/1111. Of 6 possible gray levels on average 4.6 ± 0.8 (mean ± SD, n = 10) were discerned. Improvements (power ON vs. OFF) of ADL table tasks were measured in 13/15 patients. Overall, results were stable during the observation period. Serious adverse events (SAEs) were reported in 4 patients: 2 movements of the implant, readjusted in a second surgery; 4 conjunctival erosion/dehiscence, successfully treated; 1 pain event around the coil, successfully treated; 1 partial reduction of silicone oil tamponade leading to distorted vision (silicon oil successfully refilled). The majority of adverse events (AEs) were transient and mostly of mild to moderate intensity.Conclusions: Psychophysical and subjective data show that RETINA IMPLANT Alpha AMS is reliable, well tolerated and can restore limited visual functions in blind patients with degenerations of the outer retina. Compared with the previous implant Alpha IMS, longevity of the new implant Alpha AMS has been considerably improved. Alpha AMS has meanwhile been certified as a commercially available medical device, reimbursed in Germany by the public health system.

Indistinguishable odour enantiomers: Differences between peripheral and central-nervous electrophysiological responses

The ability of humans to discriminate enantiomeric odour pairs is substance –specific. Current literature suggests that psychophysical discrimination of odour enantiomers mainly depends on the peripheral processing at the level of the olfactory sensory neurons (OSN). To study the influence of central processing in discrimination, we investigated differences in the electrophysiological responses to psychophysically indistinguishable (+)- and (−)- rose oxide enantiomers at peripheral and central-nervous levels in humans. We recorded the electro-olfactogram (EOG) from the olfactory epithelium and the EEG-derived olfactory event-related potentials (OERP). Results from a psychophysical three alternative forced choice test indicated indistinguishability of the two odour enantiomers. In a total of 19 young participants EOG could be recorded in 74 and OERP in 95% of subjects. Significantly different EOG amplitudes and latencies were recorded in response to the 2 stimuli. However, no such differences in amplitude or latency emerged for the OERP. In conclusion, although the pair of enantiomer could be discriminated at a peripheral level this did not lead to a central-nervous/cognitive differentiation of the two stimuli.

Information Literacy Skills Are Positively Correlated with Writing Grade and Overall Course Performance

A Review of:&#x0D; Shao, X., &amp; Purpur, G. (2016). Effects of information literacy skills on student writing and course performance. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 42(6), 670-678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2016.08.006&#x0D; &#x0D; Abstract &#x0D; &#x0D; Objective – To measure the correlation of tested information literacy skills with individual writing scores and overall course grade.&#x0D; &#x0D; Design – Online, multiple-choice survey.&#x0D; &#x0D; Setting – Public research university in North Carolina, United States of America.&#x0D; &#x0D; Subjects – Freshmen students enrolled in either first-year seminar (UCO1200) or basic English writing course (ENG1000).&#x0D; &#x0D; Methods – A 25-question, forced-choice test was piloted with 30 students and measured for internal consistency using Cronbach’s Alphas. The survey instrument was slightly revised before being administered online via SelectSurvey, to 398 students in 19 different sections of either UCO1200 or ENG1000, during class sessions. The test measured students’ information literacy skills in four areas: research strategies, resource types, scholarly vs. popular, and evaluating websites. The preliminary questions asked for each student’s name, major (by category), number of library instruction sessions attended, and the names of library services utilized.&#x0D; &#x0D; The students’ information literacy scores were compared to their writing scores and overall course grades, both of which were obtained from course instructors. The information literacy scores were also analyzed for correlation to the number of library instruction sessions attended or the types of library services utilized.&#x0D; &#x0D; Main Results – Information literacy skills positively correlated with writing scores (n=344, r=-.153, p=0.004) and final course grades (n=345, r=0.112, p=0.037). Pearson’s Correlation Coefficients results demonstrated relationships between writing scores and the information literacy test section “Scholarly versus Popular Sources” (n=344, r=0.145, p=0.007), and final grade and information literacy test sections “Types of Sources” (n=345, r=0.124, p=0.021) and “Website Evaluation” (n=345, r=0.117, p=0.029). The impact of using other library services or of attending multiple information literacy sessions was not statistically significant. &#x0D; &#x0D; Conclusion – Students’ mastery of tested information literacy skills directly correlates to their writing and final course grades. The study confirms the need for faculty and library collaboration to create well-integrated library instruction and services, and advocates for librarians to become integral to campus initiatives for student learning and success.

Determination of the smoking gun of intent: significance testing of forced choice results in social security claimants

Objective: Significantly below-chance findings on forced choice tests have been described as revealing “the smoking gun of intent” that proved malingering. The issues of probability levels, one-tailed vs. two-tailed tests, and the combining of PVT scores on significantly below-chance findings were addressed in a previous study, with a recommendation of a probability level of .20 to test the significance of below-chance results. The purpose of the present study was to determine the rate of below-chance findings in a Social Security Disability claimant sample using the previous recommendations. Method: We compared the frequency of below-chance results on forced choice performance validity tests (PVTs) at two levels of significance, .05 and .20, and when using significance testing on individual subtests of the PVTs compared with total scores in claimants for Social Security Disability in order to determine the rate of the expected increase. Results: The frequency of significant results increased with the higher level of significance for each subtest of the PVT and when combining individual test sections to increase the number of test items, with up to 20% of claimants showing significantly below-chance results at the higher p-value. Conclusions: These findings are discussed in light of Social Security Administration policy, showing an impact on policy issues concerning child abuse and neglect, and the importance of using these techniques in evaluations for Social Security Disability.

Young adults self-derive and retain new factual knowledge through memory integration.

The present research investigated the retention of new factual knowledge derived through integration of information acquired across temporally distributed learning episodes. Young adults were exposed to novel facts as they read long lists of seemingly unrelated information, one sentence at a time. They then were presented open-ended questions, the answers to which could be self-derived through integration of pairs of facts from the list. Experiment 1 was the first test of self-derivation of new factual knowledge through integration in adults using open-ended testing (as opposed to forced-choice testing). Participants successfully self-derived integrated knowledge under these more challenging conditions. Experiment 2 was a test for long-term retention of newly self-derived information. Newly derived knowledge remained accessible after a 1-week delay. Striking individual differences were also observed, which were related to whether individuals spontaneously identified the relational structure of the learning task. Insight into the relation between explicit task knowledge and strategic processing was also revealed through examination of response speed at the time of test. Specifically, knowledge of the task structure was associated with response latencies on unsuccessful (but not successful) trials, such that participants who were aware of the opportunity to integrate spent longer when they were subsequently unsuccessful, presumably reflecting directed search strategies and heightened perseverance when those processes failed. Together, the present findings provide direct evidence for the role of memory integration in the long-term accumulation of a semantic knowledge base and have theoretical implications for our understanding of this fundamental form of learning.

Eye Movement Characteristics of Cooperation Degree during Image Completion Test in Psychiatric Impairment Assessment

To explore the difference of eye movement characteristics between uncooperative and cooperative subjects with mental disorder after cerebral trauma. Thirty-nine subjects which needed psychiatric impairment assessment were selected. According to the binomial forced-choice digit memory test （BFDMT）, all subjects were divided into cooperative and uncooperative groups. The subjects were asked to take the image completion test from Wechsler adult intelligence scale. Meanwhile, the data of eye movement track, fixation, saccade, pupil and blink were recorded by the track system of eye movement. There were significantly differences （P<0.05） in the data of saccade between cooperative （10 cases） and uncooperative groups （29 cases）. The frequency, time, amplitude, acceleration of saccadic in uncooperative group were significantly higher than cooperation group. The saccade latencies of cooperation group increased more than uncooperative group. There was a significant difference （P<0.05） in total discrete distance, average distance and total time of fixation between two groups, while the average duration time, number and frequency of fixation had no significantly difference （P>0.05） between two groups. And the blink frequency of cooperation group was higher than uncooperative group. Eye movement can be an objective index for the primary judgment of cooperation level.

Confidence in forced-choice recognition: What underlies the ratings?

Two-alternative forced-choice recognition tests are commonly used to assess recognition accuracy that is uncontaminated by changes in bias. In such tests, participants are asked to endorse the studied item out of 2 presented alternatives. Participants may be further asked to provide confidence judgments for their recognition decisions. It is often assumed that both recognition decisions and confidence judgments in 2-alternative forced-choice recognition tests depend on participants' assessments of a difference in strength of memory evidence supporting the 2 alternatives-the relative account. In the present study we focus on the basis of confidence judgments and we assess the relative account of confidence against the absolute account of confidence, by which in assigning confidence participants consider only strength of memory evidence supporting the chosen alternative. The results of the study show that confidence in 2-alternative forced-choice recognition decisions is higher when memory evidence is stronger for the chosen alternative and also when memory evidence is stronger for the unchosen alternative. These patterns of results are consistent with the absolute account of confidence in 2-alternative forced-choice recognition but they are inconsistent with the relative account. (PsycINFO Database Record

Feasibility and Reliability of The Monell Forced Choice Test to Measure Sweet Taste Preference in Ghanaian Children Aged 4–6 y

Introduction and objectiveLittle or no research involving the measurement of sweet taste preference in children has been done in a developing country setting. In a randomized controlled trial to examine the efficacy of small‐quantity lipid‐based nutrient supplements (LNS) for supporting healthy growth and development, infants received 0 g or 20 g daily SQ‐LNS from 6–18 months of age. The SQ‐LNS was moderately sweet, with 4 g of total sugars per daily dose, including lactose (in milk) and sucrose. As part of a follow‐up aiming to assess impact on subsequent sweet taste preference, we tested the feasibility and reliability of the Monell forced choice taste test to measure sweet taste preference among Ghanaian children aged 4–6 y.MethodsA total of 598 children were recruited and taken through the 2‐series taste test. Each series included a number of forced choices between two concentrations of sucrose in water, one lower and one higher, across a range of 3 – 36% w/v concentrations. Each child tasted two solutions and was asked to point to the one they preferred. Choices continued at varying concentrations until a single preferred concentration was identified. In the first series the less sweet solution was always tasted first, and in the second the sweeter solution was tasted first. Reliability was assessed by calculating the percent agreement between the first and second series.ResultsThe test required an average of 3.8 and 3.7 presentations of sucrose solution pairs for series 1 and 2, respectively. About 47% chose the same or next closest sucrose concentration in series 1 and 2, and 38% chose &gt; 2 concentrations higher/lower. Child age (P&lt;0.001) but not level of schooling (P=0.4601) was associated with the percent agreement between series 1 and 2. Compared to children who were 6 y old at the time of testing, children aged 4 y [OR (95% CI): 5.96 (2.04, 17.45)] and 5 y [3.05 (1.03, 9.00)] were more likely to prefer &gt; 2 concentrations higher/lower in series 1 versus 2.ConclusionIn our setting and possibly other low income settings similar to our study area, the Monell forced choice test is feasible but may be acceptably reliable only among children aged 6 y and above.Support or Funding InformationThis study was funded by a grant from the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation to the University of California, Davis, USA.

Levels of higher alcohols inducing aroma changes and modulating experts' preferences in wine model solutions

Background and Aims This study aimed to identify the minimal concentration of higher alcohols (HA) (isoamyl alcohol/isobutanol) that causes readily discernible changes in aroma properties and preferences according to a group of Spanish wine experts. Methods and Results A group of 16 Spanish wine experts carried out several series of two-alternative forced-choice sensory tests on three wine models (WMs) with specific aroma properties (fruity, woody and animal). Control WMs were contrasted to samples containing an increasing concentration of HA. Levels of 299 and 288 mg/L of HA were able to confer their spirit-like characteristic aroma to fruity and woody-like WMs and to suppress red fruit (299 mg/L) and woody (281 mg/L) attributes, respectively. A concentration of 365 and 375 mg/L of HA increased the animal aroma generated by ethyl phenols and the spirit-like nuances of HA, respectively. The presence of HA at a concentration ranging from 284 to 358 mg/L caused a decrease in the preference. In woody WMs, highly sensitive participants were able to detect and perceive as negative an addition of HA as little as 17 and 22 mg/L. Conclusions This is the first work estimating the concentration of HA able to affect aroma properties and hedonic character of red wines. Significance of the Study These results can assist while making decisions mainly during the fermentation stage to control HA production.

Age-related impairment on a forced-choice version of the Mnemonic Similarity Task.

Previous studies from our lab have indicated that healthy older adults are impaired in their ability to mnemonically discriminate between previously viewed objects and similar lure objects in the Mnemonic Similarity Task (MST). These studies have used either old/similar/new or old/new test formats. The forced-choice test format (e.g., "Did you see object A or object A' during the encoding phase?") relies on different assumptions than the old/new test format (e.g., "Did you see this object during the encoding phase?"); hence, converging evidence from these approaches would bolster the conclusion that healthy aging is accompanied by impaired performance on the MST. Consistent with our hypothesis, healthy older adults exhibited impaired performance on a forced-choice test format that required discriminating between a target and a similar lure. We also tested the hypothesis that age-related impairments on the MST could be modeled within a global matching computational framework. We found that decreasing the probability of successful feature encoding in the models caused changes that were similar to the empirical data in healthy older adults. Collectively, our behavioral results using the forced-choice format extend the finding that healthy aging is accompanied by an impaired ability to discriminate between targets and similar lures, and our modeling results suggest that a diminished probability of encoding stimulus features is a candidate mechanism for memory changes in healthy aging. We also discuss the ability of global matching models to account for findings in other studies that have used variants on mnemonic similarity tasks. (PsycINFO Database Record

Milk fat threshold determination and the effect of milk fat content on consumer preference for fluid milk

Milk consumption in the United States has been in decline since the 1960s. Milk fat plays a critical role in sensory properties of fluid milk. The first objective of this study was to determine the change in percent milk fat needed to produce a detectable or just noticeable difference (JND) to consumers in skim, 1%, 2%, and whole milks. The second objective was to evaluate how milk fat affected consumer preferences for fluid milk. Threshold tests were conducted to determine the JND for each reference milk (skim, 1%, 2%, and whole milk), with a minimum of 60 consumers for each JND. The JND was determined for milks by visual appearance without tasting and tasting without visual cues. Serving temperature effect (4, 8, or 15°C) on tasting JND values were also investigated. The established JND values were then used to conduct ascending forced-choice preference tests with milks. Consumers were assigned to 3 groups based on self-reported milk consumption: skim milk drinkers (n = 59), low-fat milk drinkers (consumed 1% or 2% milk, n = 64), and whole milk drinkers (n = 49). Follow-up interviews were conducted where consumers were asked to taste and explain their preference between milks that showed the most polarization within each consumer segment. Descriptive sensory analysis was performed on the milks used in the follow-up interviews to quantify sensory differences. Visual-only JND were lower than tasting-only JND values. Preference testing revealed 3 distinct preference curves among the consumer segments. Skim milk drinkers preferred skim milk and up to 2% milk fat, but disliked milk higher in fat due to it being "too thick," "too heavy," "flavor and texture like cream," "too fatty," and "looks like half and half." Low-fat milk drinkers preferred 2% milk up to 3.25% (whole milk), but then disliked higher milk fat content. Whole milk drinkers preferred whichever milk was higher in milk fat regardless of how high the fat content was, distinct from skim and low-fat milk drinkers. The findings of this study provide insights on sensory characteristics of milk fat in fluid milk and consumer sensory perception of these properties. These results also provide insights on how the industry might adjust milk fat references for adjusting milk sensory properties to increase milk preference and remain within the standards of identity of milk.

Towards a theory of individual differences in statistical learning.

In recent years, statistical learning (SL) research has seen a growing interest in tracking individual performance in SL tasks, mainly as a predictor of linguistic abilities. We review studies from this line of research and outline three presuppositions underlying the experimental approach they employ: (i) that SL is a unified theoretical construct; (ii) that current SL tasks are interchangeable, and equally valid for assessing SL ability; and (iii) that performance in the standard forced-choice test in the task is a good proxy of SL ability. We argue that these three critical presuppositions are subject to a number of theoretical and empirical issues. First, SL shows patterns of modality- and informational-specificity, suggesting that SL cannot be treated as a unified construct. Second, different SL tasks may tap into separate sub-components of SL that are not necessarily interchangeable. Third, the commonly used forced-choice tests in most SL tasks are subject to inherent limitations and confounds. As a first step, we offer a methodological approach that explicitly spells out a potential set of different SL dimensions, allowing for better transparency in choosing a specific SL task as a predictor of a given linguistic outcome. We then offer possible methodological solutions for better tracking and measuring SL ability. Taken together, these discussions provide a novel theoretical and methodological approach for assessing individual differences in SL, with clear testable predictions.This article is part of the themed issue 'New frontiers for statistical learning in the cognitive sciences'.

Labelling Facial Affect in Context in Adults with and without TBI.

Recognition of facial affect has been studied extensively in adults with and without traumatic brain injury (TBI), mostly by asking examinees to match basic emotion words to isolated faces. This method may not capture affect labelling in everyday life when faces are in context and choices are open-ended. To examine effects of context and response format, we asked 148 undergraduate students to label emotions shown on faces either in isolation or in natural visual scenes. Responses were categorised as representing basic emotions, social emotions, cognitive state terms, or appraisals. We used students' responses to create a scoring system that was applied prospectively to five men with TBI. In both groups, over 50% of responses were neither basic emotion words nor synonyms, and there was no significant difference in response types between faces alone vs. in scenes. Adults with TBI used labels not seen in students' responses, talked more overall, and often gave multiple labels for one photo. Results suggest benefits of moving beyond forced-choice tests of faces in isolation to fully characterise affect recognition in adults with and without TBI.